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	<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Alena.Kvitkova</id>
	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
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	<updated>2026-05-14T17:34:52Z</updated>
	<subtitle>Příspěvky uživatele</subtitle>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17803</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17803"/>
		<updated>2015-02-23T14:19:15Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: /* 3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order. */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== '''4)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17802</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17802"/>
		<updated>2015-02-23T14:18:46Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== '''3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17801</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17801"/>
		<updated>2015-02-23T14:17:11Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: /* 3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== '''3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. ''The History of English: An Introduction.'' New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 105-108.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17800</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17800"/>
		<updated>2015-02-23T14:14:48Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: /* 3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order. */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== '''3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 105-108&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17799</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17799"/>
		<updated>2015-02-23T14:12:22Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== '''3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17798</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17798"/>
		<updated>2015-02-23T14:11:29Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== '''3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== One ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Relative pronouns ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Periphrastic structures ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Word order ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17796</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17796"/>
		<updated>2015-02-23T14:04:53Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: Založena nová stránka s textem „'''3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.'''“&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''3)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.'''&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6797</id>
		<title>The origins of English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6797"/>
		<updated>2014-10-15T12:06:18Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: /* Language change[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== The origins of language ==&lt;br /&gt;
* emerged ca. 145,000 years ago &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;The history of English: an introduction&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* capacity for language is uniquely human and given by the brain structure &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* form and structure of the first language is unknown &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin it is possible that the development of language was dictated by the modern human behaviour&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Changes in the pronunciation of Germanic before the invasion of Britain&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''The First Germanic Sound Shift ''= subgroup of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European language adopted some changes in pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
* two parts - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Grimm's Law''' describes the shift in pronunciation of certain consonants&lt;br /&gt;
** /b, d, g/ lost their voicing -&amp;gt; /p, t, k/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''ad ''x English - ''at'', Latin - ''jugum'' x English'' - yoke''&lt;br /&gt;
** /p, t, k/ changed into fricatives /f, θ, h/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''piscus'' x English - ''fish'', Latin - ''cordis ''x English - ''heart''&lt;br /&gt;
** however - /p, t, k/ after /s/ and before voiceless stops remained&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin ''- stella'' x English - ''star; ''Latin - ''noctis'' x English - ''night''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verner's Law '''explains the effect of word stress on pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
** voiceless fricatives /f, s, θ, ʃ/ became voiced if the preceeding syllable was originally unstressed&lt;br /&gt;
** Latin - ''pater ''x English - ''father - ''the stress was originally on the second syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The world of Germanic people&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* warlike and trade orientated &lt;br /&gt;
** during the Bronze age (La Tene culture&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;) stood in trade with the Greeks and also exercised an influence on the Germanic peoples to the north and east &lt;br /&gt;
** During the Iron Age (second half of the first millennium BCE) major changes in trade and social organisation took place, and Roman invasion started on a course of expansion which would go well beyond its Italian basis &lt;br /&gt;
** The Germanic peoples lived principally from animal husbandry, hunting and agriculture &lt;br /&gt;
** '''Germanic-Roman contact''' has been often of a military nature, whether facing them as enemies or joining them as members of the Roman army&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** Gold coins introduced in 125 BCE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The Influence of the Roman World and of Latin ===&lt;br /&gt;
# Raising expectations about lifestyles and new ways of organising society.  &lt;br /&gt;
# Latin influence in the military area led to the adoption of the words such as ''camp, mile, street, road''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
# The trade brought words like ''pound, wine''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
# The Christianisation of Goths brought words like ''bishop, Saturday''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;'' ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== '''Germanic Migrations Why?''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
# Overpopulation &lt;br /&gt;
# Pressure from the outside inwards like Huns &lt;br /&gt;
# Looked for better pastures &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== A family model in the context of language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* consists of a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* reflects the tree model of language origination&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in the course of language change, ancient families of languages emerged and further diverged to make up the languages we can observe at present &lt;br /&gt;
* proto-language (gained as a result of reconstruction) is labelled metaphorically as the mother of a language family (for English Proto-Germanic) and the sublanguages as its daughters/granddaughters (West Germanic --&amp;gt; Low German --&amp;gt; English) &lt;br /&gt;
* plus, the Germanic language family itself belongs to a larger grouping known as the Indo-European language family &lt;br /&gt;
* membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics &lt;br /&gt;
* problem of this model: assumes only divergence and therefore doesn’t take into account borrowing and other processes by which languages grow more similar &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Proto-language ===&lt;br /&gt;
* the latest common ancestor of a language family&lt;br /&gt;
* first language – usually hypothetical or reconstructed, and unattested – from which a number of attested, or documented, known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
* typically, the proto-language is not known directly; it is reconstructed by applying the comparative method to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics, trying to figure out what earlier shared forms the languages might have had&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** e.g. French, Spanish and Italian are known as the Romance languages, all of them having descended from the earlier “parent“ language, Latin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Divergence ===&lt;br /&gt;
* linguistic evolution, as a result of which certain dialects of one language are isolated from the other dialects of this language and form independent languages&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Divergence+in+Linguistics]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in prehistoric times migrations of people often led to the loss of contact and to divergence &lt;br /&gt;
* can be intentional (according to Howard Giles)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors &lt;br /&gt;
** reflects a desire to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive manner &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Internal changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* phenomenon called “linguistic drift” – tendency of a language to change without any external forces&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/chapter-resources.asp]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* no longer pronouncing /h/ in words previously beginning with the clusters /hl-/, /hn-/, /hr-/, and /hw-/ e.g. hring (ring), hw£t (what)  &lt;br /&gt;
** /h/ = strong aspiration and emphatic expression → loss in non-frenetic speech → the combination /hw-/ retained longest – in question words, which are often uttered individually and more emphatically (What! Why! When!)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* increasing use of demonstratives before nouns  &lt;br /&gt;
** became normal and systematic, resulting in an article system  &lt;br /&gt;
** emphasizing (and specifying) the following noun  &lt;br /&gt;
** original deictic sense (the location of something in time and space) became less prominent and the sense of specification was generalized  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== External changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* when languages or cultures come into contact with one another and influence each other, often depends on prestige of communities and convenience of borrowings (for new concepts)  &lt;br /&gt;
* significant influence (may result in creolisation) or relatively superficial (words from one language find their way into another and are assimilated into it  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Creolisation ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language communities in which mutually unintelligible languages are spoken come into contact with each other → communication by learning the language of the other group → a great deal of lexical borrowing from the superordinate language takes place, but the borrowed vocabulary is used according to the grammar of their native language → '''pidginization '''= new language comes into existence which is no one’s native language  &lt;br /&gt;
* '''creolization '''– pidgin becomes a native language; when children are exposed to pidgin as their primary language  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Typological change ===&lt;br /&gt;
* fundamental change in language (word order, inflectional morphology, grammatical categories)  &lt;br /&gt;
* in English: &lt;br /&gt;
** use of the definite article = typological difference from Slavic languages  &lt;br /&gt;
** word-order changed from variable to SVO, but other word-orders occurred as well: Adv-VSO, dependent clauses SOV  &lt;br /&gt;
** went from synthetic language with high degree of inflections (endings added to verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs) to analytical language with periphrastic structures  &lt;br /&gt;
** subject pronouns became mandatory  &lt;br /&gt;
** new noun and verb categories &lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6796</id>
		<title>The origins of English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6796"/>
		<updated>2014-10-15T12:04:20Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Alena.Kvitkova: /* Language change[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== The origins of language ==&lt;br /&gt;
* emerged ca. 145,000 years ago &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;The history of English: an introduction&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* capacity for language is uniquely human and given by the brain structure &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* form and structure of the first language is unknown &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin it is possible that the development of language was dictated by the modern human behaviour&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Changes in the pronunciation of Germanic before the invasion of Britain&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''The First Germanic Sound Shift ''= subgroup of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European language adopted some changes in pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
* two parts - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Grimm's Law''' describes the shift in pronunciation of certain consonants&lt;br /&gt;
** /b, d, g/ lost their voicing -&amp;gt; /p, t, k/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''ad ''x English - ''at'', Latin - ''jugum'' x English'' - yoke''&lt;br /&gt;
** /p, t, k/ changed into fricatives /f, θ, h/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''piscus'' x English - ''fish'', Latin - ''cordis ''x English - ''heart''&lt;br /&gt;
** however - /p, t, k/ after /s/ and before voiceless stops remained&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin ''- stella'' x English - ''star; ''Latin - ''noctis'' x English - ''night''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verner's Law '''explains the effect of word stress on pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
** voiceless fricatives /f, s, θ, ʃ/ became voiced if the preceeding syllable was originally unstressed&lt;br /&gt;
** Latin - ''pater ''x English - ''father - ''the stress was originally on the second syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The world of Germanic people&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* warlike and trade orientated &lt;br /&gt;
** during the Bronze age (La Tene culture&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;) stood in trade with the Greeks and also exercised an influence on the Germanic peoples to the north and east &lt;br /&gt;
** During the Iron Age (second half of the first millennium BCE) major changes in trade and social organisation took place, and Roman invasion started on a course of expansion which would go well beyond its Italian basis &lt;br /&gt;
** The Germanic peoples lived principally from animal husbandry, hunting and agriculture &lt;br /&gt;
** '''Germanic-Roman contact''' has been often of a military nature, whether facing them as enemies or joining them as members of the Roman army&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** Gold coins introduced in 125 BCE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The Influence of the Roman World and of Latin ===&lt;br /&gt;
# Raising expectations about lifestyles and new ways of organising society.  &lt;br /&gt;
# Latin influence in the military area led to the adoption of the words such as ''camp, mile, street, road''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
# The trade brought words like ''pound, wine''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
# The Christianisation of Goths brought words like ''bishop, Saturday''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;'' ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== '''Germanic Migrations Why?''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
# Overpopulation &lt;br /&gt;
# Pressure from the outside inwards like Huns &lt;br /&gt;
# Looked for better pastures &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== A family model in the context of language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* consists of a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* reflects the tree model of language origination&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in the course of language change, ancient families of languages emerged and further diverged to make up the languages we can observe at present &lt;br /&gt;
* proto-language (gained as a result of reconstruction) is labelled metaphorically as the mother of a language family (for English Proto-Germanic) and the sublanguages as its daughters/granddaughters (West Germanic --&amp;gt; Low German --&amp;gt; English) &lt;br /&gt;
* plus, the Germanic language family itself belongs to a larger grouping known as the Indo-European language family &lt;br /&gt;
* membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics &lt;br /&gt;
* problem of this model: assumes only divergence and therefore doesn’t take into account borrowing and other processes by which languages grow more similar &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Proto-language ===&lt;br /&gt;
* the latest common ancestor of a language family&lt;br /&gt;
* first language – usually hypothetical or reconstructed, and unattested – from which a number of attested, or documented, known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
* typically, the proto-language is not known directly; it is reconstructed by applying the comparative method to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics, trying to figure out what earlier shared forms the languages might have had&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** e.g. French, Spanish and Italian are known as the Romance languages, all of them having descended from the earlier “parent“ language, Latin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Divergence ===&lt;br /&gt;
* linguistic evolution, as a result of which certain dialects of one language are isolated from the other dialects of this language and form independent languages&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Divergence+in+Linguistics]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in prehistoric times migrations of people often led to the loss of contact and to divergence &lt;br /&gt;
* can be intentional (according to Howard Giles)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors &lt;br /&gt;
** reflects a desire to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive manner &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Internal changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* phenomenon called “linguistic drift” – tendency of a language to change without any external forces&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/chapter-resources.asp]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* no longer pronouncing /h/ in words previously beginning with the clusters /hl-/, /hn-/, /hr-/, and /hw-/ e.g. hring (ring), hw£t (what)  &lt;br /&gt;
** /h/ = strong aspiration and emphatic expression → loss in non-frenetic speech → the combination /hw-/ retained longest – in question words, which are often uttered individually and more emphatically (What! Why! When!)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* increasing use of demonstratives before nouns  &lt;br /&gt;
** became normal and systematic, resulting in an article system  &lt;br /&gt;
** emphasizing (and specifying) the following noun  &lt;br /&gt;
** original deictic sense (the location of something in time and space) became less prominent and the sense of specification was generalized  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== External changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* when languages come into contact with one another and influence each other  &lt;br /&gt;
* significant influence (may result in creolisation) or relatively superficial (words from one language find their way into another and are assimilated into it  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Creolisation ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language communities in which mutually unintelligible languages are spoken come into contact with each other → communication by learning the language of the other group → a great deal of lexical borrowing from the superordinate language takes place, but the borrowed vocabulary is used according to the grammar of their native language → '''pidginization '''= new language comes into existence which is no one’s native language  &lt;br /&gt;
* '''creolization '''– pidgin becomes a native language; when children are exposed to pidgin as their primary language  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Typological change ===&lt;br /&gt;
* fundamental change in language (word order, inflectional morphology, grammatical categories)  &lt;br /&gt;
* in English: &lt;br /&gt;
** use of the definite article = typological difference from Slavic languages  &lt;br /&gt;
** word-order changed from variable to SVO, but other word-orders occurred as well: Adv-VSO, dependent clauses SOV  &lt;br /&gt;
** went from synthetic language with high degree of inflections (endings added to verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs) to analytical language with periphrastic structures  &lt;br /&gt;
** subject pronouns became mandatory  &lt;br /&gt;
** new noun and verb categories &lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Alena.Kvitkova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
</feed>