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	<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Aneta.Jerglova</id>
	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
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	<updated>2026-05-15T02:20:03Z</updated>
	<subtitle>Příspěvky uživatele</subtitle>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=10._The_Words,_Sounds,_and_Inflections_of_Early_Modern_English&amp;diff=46643</id>
		<title>10. The Words, Sounds, and Inflections of Early Modern English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=10._The_Words,_Sounds,_and_Inflections_of_Early_Modern_English&amp;diff=46643"/>
		<updated>2017-03-26T20:15:07Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Aneta.Jerglova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;''' 1. Give an overview of the system of verbal inflections in EMnE. Why was the -th ending in 3 sg. pres. retained longer in verbs such as “hath” and “doth”? '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- there is a difference between weak and strong verbs in Early Modern English in that sense that weak verbs of Middle English remained relatively unchanged, but the classes of strong verbs underwent several changes.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 7 classes of the strong verbs broke down, many strong verbs by analogy became weak verbs, the distinction between singular and plural past in the strong verb was eliminated (originally there was a different ablaut vowel for the singular and for the plural  this principle can be seen in PDE: in be  a difference between was and were). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Verner´s Law alternations were removed, certain strong past participles were retained only as adjectives (for example the word molten as opposed to today´s melted or shaven as opposed to shaved.) As a result of these transitions between strong and weak verbs there were many variant forms in the sixteenth and seventeenth century texts because this process was rather gradual, so both forms of for example crope and crept and shook and shaked were used. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the inflectional endings of verbs are developments of the endings found in Middle English with dialect variants eliminated. In the present tense, the –e of the first person singular was lost before the end of the ME period. The second-person singular ending became –est or ´st.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Third-person singular endings are –es deriving from the ME Northern dialect form and –eth from MED Midlands and Southern dialects.  -eth ending was more common in the early part of the period, but by the beginning of the seventeenth century, -es had become the norm.  –eth ending is often preserved in poetry and more formal prose and the –th remained especially in the verbs hath and doth.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- zero ending of the plural is common from early in the modern period, although –eth is also found occasionally, also –es and –en  (this form is by this time regarded as a literary archaism). What is quite interesting is the existence of the –ing ending for the present participle and other alternative endings: and and ind died out. What also died out was the past participial prefix ge-, i- or y-, and also the –en ending had disappeared.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-The forms hath and doth retained longer especially because of frequency of their usage.      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. Discuss the development of the pronouns you and thou (both from the formal and the pragmatic point of view). '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The second- person singular and plural forms began to be used to make social rather than number distinctions.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-in social usage, for instance in French and German, the plural forms are used as markers of politeness (honorifics). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- The comparable use in English first appeared in the 13th century and was established by the 14th century. The plural forms were used in addressing superiors in age, rank, and social class. Among the upper class, the plural forms were also used among equals who were not intimates.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the singular forms were used in addressing inferiors: by a king to a subject, a master to a servant etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-the lower classes generally relied on the singular.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-the second – person pronoun forms can have social or interpersonal effects: indicating deference, respect and politeness, but in cases where the singular form would be appropriate, the plural can be distancing, threatening, or reprimanding.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-the singular forms have two emotional uses: in intimate situations expressing tenderness, affection, or intimacy, or in situations of anger expressing disrespect or contempt. If used where inappropriate, they may be either patronizing or presumptuous. This distinction worked in Shakespeare, however the actual use of thou and you in Early Modern English was somewhat variable, the system was loose and unstable, and in many instances you and thou appear to be in free variation.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-You gradually became the neutral form of address, perhaps because its use among the upper class was emulated by all classes or because the lower-class thou became stigmatized. By 1700, the second- person singular forms were no longer common except in some regional dialects and in conservative formal writing (Biblical texts).          &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3. What are the most important differences between ME and EMnE borrowings? '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the pattern of borrowing established in the Middle English period continued during the Early Modern period &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- BUT the majority of loan words are from Latin rather than French between 1500 and 1650   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the contemporary attitudes to borrowings (and the structure of the English lexicon in general) in this period.  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Latin and French, the Greek words were borrowed through Latin as well &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a greater variety of source languages —both Indo-European (Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Iranian, Celtic, Scandinavian languages, German, Dutchm, Russian) and non-Indo-European languages (Turkish, Malay, Arabic, Japanese, Hebrew, North American Indigenous Languages, Chinese) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- many Latinate affixes became productive in Early Modern English, speakers tended to analyze the structure of Latinate words into constituent parts and then extend an affix to new lexical roots (-ation: verification, association; -ize extracted from complex loan words and added newly to Latinate roots: apologizem criticize), but these suffixes also added to English roots: womanize   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- some people thought that the native language is sufficient, that the monosyllabic words of Germanic (which they called ‘Saxon’) could express more truly and unambiguously the writer’s meaning, Edmund Spenser coined new English words and revived archaic words &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- some thought it fine to pick up borrowings &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- eventually, innovation, not convention, prevailed so that an immense number of Latin words were borrowed   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''5. What was the Great Vowel Shift and when did it occur? (Use terms such as push/pull chain, raising, etc. to describe the changes). What are the two important results of GVS that the chapter mentions?'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the vowel shift that affected all the long vowels inherited from Middle English, comparable to the First Sound Shift &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- it began perhaps early in the 15th century in southern England, it continued through the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- it occurred in all phonological environments (it was unconditioned) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- all long or lengthened (stressed) vowels were raised in articulation or, if already high vowels, were diphthongized &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the mechanism of change may either have been a drag chain or a push chain:  drag chain: the first sounds to change were the high vowels, [i:] &amp;gt;ai and [u:]&amp;gt;au, which were diphthongized, gaps were left, then filled by lower vowels moving up  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a different change has been proposed: [e] and [o] were the first sounds to change, and as they were raised in articulation, they set in motion simultaneously a drag and a push chain, pushing the high vowels out of their positions and pulling the lower vowels up.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the changes are not recorded in the orthography &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-these changes varied across space and time and did not always reach completion  two important results of the Great Vowel Shift: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) it eliminated the distinction between long and short vowels that had characterized both the Old and Middle English phonological systems, the long vowels replaced either by diphthongs or tense vowels, which contrasted with the lax short vowels &amp;gt; the vowel system based on distinctions of quantity (e.g. OE god ‘deity’ versus god ‘good’) changed to one based on distinctions of quality &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Modern English does have long and short vowels this distinction is merely an allophonic difference, completely predictable by the voicing qualities or number of consonants following the vowel  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) it confused English spelling. In Old and Middle English, the spellings of stressed vowels in English correspond to their pronunciations. The arrival of the printing press in England in the late fifteenth century standardized spelling and fixed orthography to late Middle English conventions. When the long vowels shifted in the subsequent centuries, the spelling system did not change to record the new pronunciations. The spelling currently used for stressed vowels, then, is the spelling appropriate for the unshifted vowels   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''6. Summarize the most important changes in the consonantal system during EMnE.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-two significant changes in the consonant inventory:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) the addition of two phonemes, [ŋ] and [ž] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) the loss of another (which had the two allophonic variants [x] and [ç]= voiceless velar and palatal fricatives), all that remains today is the unpronounced gh spelling (from ME ʒ) in straight &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- consonant clusters simplified, liquids lost in certain contexts: [r] before [s] in bass (&amp;lt; barse), ass (&amp;lt; arse) -[1] was lost after [ɔ] and [ɑ] and before laterals in combination with velars or nasals &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- [w] glide was lost in [wr] sequences write &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- stop consonants were also lost know, dumb, handsome, castle, often  - simplification occurred in the cluster [ŋg], in stressed syllables, at the end of words, it was simplified to [ŋ] by the loss of [g]; in the middle of words, the [g] was retaines, [n] and [ŋ] are no longer allophonic but have become separate phonemes  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-palatalization (occurred already in the Old English period), more widespread in Modern English, alveolar stops and fricatives became alveolopalatal affricates and fricatives in combination with a following palatal glide:  [t + j &amp;gt; č] Christian  [d + j &amp;gt; j̊] individual [s + j &amp;gt; š] tissue [z + j &amp;gt; ž] leisure   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''7. Summarize the most important changes in the system of short vowels and consonants in EMnE. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the short vowels of Middle English have remained stable &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- short [ɑ] moved forward to the low central position [a] and then by the late 16th century to the low front position [æ] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- later change short [æ] shifted in the late 18th century in England to [ɑ] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- short [ɛ], short [ɪ] and short [ɔ] did not change - short [ʊ] split into two phonemes, [ʊ] and [ə] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- before [r] (at the end of a word or preceding another consonant), the short stressed sounds [ɪ], [ʊ], and [ɛ] tended to be centralized to [ə]=&amp;gt; [ɪr] &amp;gt; [ər] bird  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''8. What was the motivation for respelling some of the words during this time?'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the disparity between sound and spelling brought on by the Great Vowel Shift caused a lively debate in the mid-16th century &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the spelling reformers suggested radical revisions of English spelling in an attempt to make it phonetic, including the abandonment of the Latin alphabet in favor of a completely new alphabet or the addition of symbols and diacritics to the Latin alphabet.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- spelling in printed texts became fixed by about the mid-17th century &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Renaissance interest in the Latin and Greek origins of words in English did lead to respellings of borrowed words to make them correspond more closely to their etymology.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''9. Describe the forms and uses of the genitive case in this period'''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- when the analogical plural and genitive -s endings became dominant, a few remnants of other endings survived.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in Early Modern English texts there are examples of genitive forms without -s or of the plural form -en in words such as housen, shoon &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- endingless genitives derive from the weak declension: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) the r-stem declension naming familial relations (e.g. father land) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) the genitive plural expressing measure (e.g. five foot [tall]) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3) the noun in the genitive ends in [s] (e.g. poore Clarence death) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4) the head noun begins with [s] (e.g. for posteritie sake), or both (e.g. for peace sake)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
three new developments in the marking of the genitive in Early Modern English: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) his-genitive- an uninflected noun (naming a person or personified thing) followed by a third-person genitive pronoun: e.g. the count his gallies, Lucilla hir company &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- it has not survived in Modern English, it has left a lasting mark—the apostrophe now properly found in all noun possessives.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) group genitive- a nominal group, N + PP (the man in the back’s question) or N followed by a relative clause (this man I know ’s wife), or a pronoun group with other (each other’s friend)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the genitive inflection is attached to the last element of the group rather than to the head noun &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- colloquial Modern English, not formal 3) double genitive- both an inflected genitive and a periphrastic genitive (a friend of my sister’s; a picture o f John's) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in Modern English, the first noun is generally indefinite and the second is animate; the construction has a partitive sense (‘one friend from among all of my sister’s friends’)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''10. Discuss the development of the determiner system in EMnE.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the use of the definite and indefinite articles resembles that of Modern English  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the indefinite article in EModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the first mention of a referent &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- sometimes the indefinite article is omitted where we would require it(what dreadfull noise)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- or it has the meaning ‘one’ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the definite article&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- something already mentioned or known &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- it might also be omitted, but it also appears in some contexts where we do not include it: before titles {the Lord Northumberland), diseases (the gout), and learning (the metaphysics)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- article usage continues to be a matter of convention in Modern English as well, with the definite article omitted in cases such as in bed, in summer, at dinner, or by car &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- it also varies from dialect to dialect  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''11. What possessive forms were in use in EMnE and how did they differ from PDE possessives? '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
At the beginning of the EModE period, the first-person genitive forms my and mine as well as the second-person genitive forms thy and thine were distinguished as in Middle English: the first of each pair would be used before nouns beginning in a consonant and the second before nouns beginning in a vowel or h (my faythe  x mine honour). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-In Shakespeare’s time, however, they were used rather indiscriminately, as in mine own or my own and thine eyes or thy eye.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-By 1700 a new principle distinguished the forms: the first kind functioned as an adjectival genitive preceding the noun, and the second as a pronominal genitive following a preposition or verb such as b.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-The difference can be seen in Modern English my book compared to the book of mine, the book is mine. The –s forms hers, ours, yours, and theirs also came to function as possessive pronouns; his and its, meanwhile, exhibit no distinction between the adjectival and pronominal forms.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''12. Describe the structure of relative clauses in EMnE. What are the differences between EMnE and PDE in the usage of zero relatives (and why)? '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The usual OE relative is þ e, the  usual ME one is that, in Middle English: who, what and that begin to be used as indefinite relatives (forms which today contain –ever). An example of an EModE indefinite relative is: Who steals my purse steals trash. In late Middle English a significant expansion in relative forms began and progressed in the Early Modern period: the interrogative pronouns started being used as regular relative pronouns, not just indefinite ones, probably because that had too many functions and because of the influence of French &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
– the phenomenon began with which, whose, and whom, but only spread to who later in the 16th century. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Early Modern English: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	which is used frequently with animate nouns (today it is restricted to inanimate nouns) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	who sometimes occurs with inanimate nouns (today it is restricted to animate nouns) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	that can occur in non-restrictive clauses  My Foolish Rituals that her Father likes (today that is limited to restrictive relative clauses) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	uses the which, that which and as as relative pronouns: in the which better part / haue saued my life &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	compound relative forms such as who(m), what, which, whose and that or so can also occur - these his new Honors, Which that he will giue them &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	relative pronouns may be omitted: Try all the friends 0 thou hast in Ephesus and My Father had a daughter 0 lou’d a man  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the difference between EMnE and PDE: Modern English would permit the relative pronouns to be deleted in the first example, but not in the second, because Modern grammatical rules require the subject of the verb to be present and here the relative pronouns is the subject of the verb lou’d.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''13.Explain the terms:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	honorifics  - plural forms used as markers of politeness - the second-person singular and plural forms began to be used to make social rather than number distinctions •	enclictic – a weakly stressed form which cannot stand alone and is attached to the preceding word, as in the case of –n´t or ´ĺl; an intermediate form between a full word and an inflection; with the development of the group genitive between Middle English  and Early Modern English the status of the genitive inflection changed and it became an eclictic &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	phonotactic constraint – certain sounds combinations became restricted in respect to their position in a syllable  for example &amp;lt;gn&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;mb&amp;gt; can never begin or end syllable, though they may be divided across the syllable boundary as in magnet and humble  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	inkhorn terms – a derisive sixteenth- century term for learned borrowings, considered overly pedantic and unnecessary – e.g. demit (=send away), learned terms deliberately introduced by writers, the word is derived from the traditional horn contained for ink&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Aneta.Jerglova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=8._The_Rise_of_Middle_English:_Words_and_Sounds&amp;diff=40227</id>
		<title>8. The Rise of Middle English: Words and Sounds</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=8._The_Rise_of_Middle_English:_Words_and_Sounds&amp;diff=40227"/>
		<updated>2016-12-14T22:18:54Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Aneta.Jerglova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;''' 1. Describe the (socio-)linguistic situation in the Middle English period (What languages were used on the British Isles and what was their status? Why do we have a record of so many ME dialects?). In the light of this situation, try to explain the origin of expressions like &amp;quot;last will and testament&amp;quot; in legal English.''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''After Norman Conquest 1066 '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''- '''For a long period, there were close connections between not only England and Normandy, and the rest of France.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the Norman kings of England spent much of their time on French soil and married French wives (gained additional French possessions) -&amp;gt; Henry II (1154-1189), gained two-thirds of France by his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, he understood English but did not speak it &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the first king to speak English was Edward I (1272-1307) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- for two hundred years, the rulers of England spoke only French (nobility, church, Norman troops) x 90 per cent of the population continued to speak English, which was tolerated by the Norman overlords  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
diglossia= English as a lower or socially stigmatized spoken dialect x French the higher, prestige dialect, the one to be imitated)= ‘low men hold to English and their own speech’  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- by intermarriage and the demands of business a small group of bilingual speakers emerged (knights, merchants, lesser landlords, parish priests, and monks)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the written evidence reveals three languages in use: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Latin (the official language of law and state) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
French (the ruling class, commerce, monasteries, French literature cultivated in the court) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Norman French/Anglo-Norman French considered inferior to the French of Paris (Central French)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
English (low people, country, peasants, artisans, laborers), only a spoken language for 200 years &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	written form slows down, prevents language change, change originates in variation in the spoken language, languages which are not written tend to change more rapidly &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	during the 11th and 12th  English was not recorded at all, only spoken in a variety of regional dialects resulting from the geographic and social isolation of the speakers; no standard dialect existed.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	These factors were stronger forces in promoting grammatical change than later language interference between French and English (changes in the vocabulary)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the Northern dialect (admixture of Scandinavian speakers, presence of strange languages and distance from the center of political power in the south) is the most innovative x the Southern dialect the most conservative (best preserving phonological and grammatical features of Old English) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	influence of the settlement patterns of the Germanic tribes, mingling with the Scandinavians and the Normans.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
“Last will and testament“ - derived from a period in English law when Old English and Law French were used side by side for maximum clarity. Other such legal doublets include &amp;quot;breaking and entering&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;peace and quiet&amp;quot;.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. Describe the process of vowel lengthening in Middle English. Explain the role the French lexical borrowings played in the quantitative changes (which is hinted at at p. 272).  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Quantitative change-''' affects the length of vowels (and sometimes consonants) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	associated with changes in intonation or accent &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the borrowing of many French words having different accentual pattern from the native one brought about the quantitative in Middle English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Old English lengthening affects certain vowels before sequences of a nasal or liquid plus stop, the most common clusters causing lengthening are -nd, -mb, -rd, and -ld: - blind, lamb, climb, word, mild, gold   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Open syllable lengthening- '''began in the first half of the 13th century, a short stressed vowel in an open: syllable of a two-syllable word (normally the first syllable of the word) is lengthened. An open syllable is one which ends in a vowel.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• V-CV(C)  • CV-CV (C)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	In Middle English, lengthening first affects short stressed a, ae, e, o later i and u&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	It is the only source of long [a] in Middle English because the original long [a] shifted to [ɔ:] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	It is hard to predict from Modern English forms because the loss of the final e sound changes open syllables to closed syllables: CVCe &amp;gt; CVC  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3. Give a brief overview of the historical events leading up to the Norman Conquest and its consequences in the political and social sphere. Why did, in your own opinion, William the Conqueror choose to surround himself with Norman aristocracy? '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The invasion and colonization of England by Scandinavians (8th-10th century) '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	isolated attacks by Danes (Norweigians + Swedes), later the Vikings (people from the North Sea, fjords), settling down, plundering raids &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	by 870 only Wessex remained under Anglo-Saxon control &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	878, a pact between king Alfred of Wessex and the Danish King Guthrum establishing the Danelaw (area under Danish control) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	991 the Battle of Maldon, Wessex defeated  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Until 1042 the Danes rule in England, the Anglo-Saxon rule restored by Edward the Confessor (was in exile in Normandy since the death of his father, Ethelred) after the death of King Cnut’s son Harthacnut.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Edward died in January 1066 leaving no male heir, Godwine’s (Edward´s father-in-law) son, Harold was elected king, but his ascension to the throne was challenged from two sides: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	King Harald Hardrada of Norway, who considered him self heir to Cnut’s throne. He invaded England via the Humber River in the north, but their forces were defeated in the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The Duke William of Normandy, he was second cousin to Edward (who had spent his exile in Normandy); when he had visited England, he had been led to believe he would succeed to the English throne (maybe he had got a promise from Harold, who was captured in Normandy in 1064 that he would not oppose William’s succession)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Norman Conquest 1066'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the most important event affecting the linguistic development of English. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	William landed in southern England with a large force, Harold of England was forced to rush down from northern England after the victorious Battle of Stamford Bridge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	The Battle of Hastings, 14 October 1066, Harold was killed (pierced through the eye by an arrow) -	William was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey in London on Christmas Day, 1066 The Normans- Scandinavians who had settled in France (9th-10th century) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	in 911, the Scandinavian leader signed a pact with French king in which the Scandinavians acknowledged the king of France while he ceded them the Normandy peninsula, the Scandinavians soon assimilated (learned French, were Christianized, and adopted Frankish customs and law) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	William replaced most of the native English nobility with Normans in order to reward his supporters and ensure the loyalty of his officials, 11 of the 12 earls of England were Norman French.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- For a long period, there were close connections between not only England and Normandy, and the rest of France.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''' 4. What led to the &amp;quot;re-establishment of English&amp;quot;?'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a number of events contributed to the decline of French and the restoration of English as the national language in the 13th and 14th centuries:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) John, king of England (1199-1216) lost control of Normandy in 1204 to King Philip of France, which forced the Anglo-Norman nobility to give up their holdings either in Normandy or in England -&amp;gt; Anglo-French ties weakened  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) Henry III. (1216 72) married Eleanor of Provence -&amp;gt; a second influx of French nobility into the English court caused resentment due to favoritism, AngloNorman French no longer the first language of the English nobility; instead, the more prestigious Central French was acquired as a second language, French had become a cultivated symbol of elite social status, a matter of culture and fashion rather than ethnicity, which evoked resentment from an increasingly nationalistic populace  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3) The Hundred Years War (1337-1453)-  England x France &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- English victories under Edward III at Crecy (1346) and at Poitiers (1356) and later under Henry V at Agincourt (1415) contributing to a sense of English nationalism.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4) the Black Death 1348-1350- 40 % of the population died (mainly urban artisans and laborers) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- laboring classes gained political power because their low numbers made them more in demand (the Peasants’ Revolt 1381&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- demand of higher wages and better working conditions). - the urban population of England was growing (the merchant and craftsman middle class) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Latin speaking priests, monks at parishes died of the plague because they lived near together -&amp;gt; Latin no more language of church (no one remained to speak Latin) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the political power and social status of English speakers increased= the status of English increased &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the prestige language and a sign of in-group solidarity, appeared in official contexts (guild and city records, commercial accountings, wills and deeds, in schools, except in the royal court used for judicial hearings) -&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
14th century- flourishing of English literature, government documents, court records became  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the restoration of English was complete by the reign of Henry V (1413-22)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''5. Describe the structure of the Middle English lexicon. Why were most of the Latinate affixes not productive during this period?'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the English in written documents of the 13th and 14th centuries, very different from Old English &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- many borrowings from Old Norse from the late Old English period, first show up in Middle English texts   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''French '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a massive influx of French terms and a substantial loss of Old English words (especially those not belonging to the core vocabulary)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 1250 and 1400, its peak is 1380, period of the greatest bilingualism, French speakers gradually becoming English speakers, importing items from their first language (everyday objects and concepts, and more specialized items) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- before 1250, words from French were cultural borrowings relating to French culturally dominant semantic domains (religion, nobility)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- after 1250, borrowings from a wider variety of domains (government- parliament, military- army, law- attorney, art: sculpture, art, architecture- cathedral, learning- grammar, food- bacon, dinner, toast, sugar, non-nuclear family- niece, nephew, uncle, aunt) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- words borrowed from Norman French and Central French (-&amp;gt; standard Modern French) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- words beginning in [w] from Norman French are of Germanic origin (wage, war).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- doublets of Norman and Central French origin (cattle/chattel, reward/regard)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Latin'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the language of official records &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 4th period of Latin borrowing, it is difficult to determine whether a word was borrowed directly from Latin or came into English via French. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- learned loan words, specialized vocabulary from the realms of religion, law, scholarship, medicine, science, and literature, were often borrowed directly from Latin (e.g. immortal, scripture, homicide, legal, testimony, history, genius, library, imaginary).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- direct Latin borrowings date from a later period than the French borrowings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- consequence of borrowing from both Latin and French: the introduction of new affixes (prefixes and suffixes) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the structure of Latinate words analyzed into their parts and then extended the affix to new lexical roots &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- French borrowing such as acceptable, agreeable analyzed into a root plus the suffix –able, then added to roots of native origin (believable, understandable) or -ard (coward, bastard -&amp;gt; wizard)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- because this two-part process of acquiring and spreading affixes takes time, many of the Latinate affixes first borrowed in word forms in Middle English do not become productive until Early Modern English &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a second consequence of borrowing is the existence of two (English help = French aid) or three levels of synonyms in English which differ in register (formal, informal, colloquial- English, literary-French, learned-Latin); rise – mount  ascend &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''6. Describe the main changes in the consonant system in the ME period. Focus especially on the new phonemes in the ME inventory.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the consonant inventory of Middle English remains much the same as that of Old English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- but there was an increase in the number of distinctive sounds, caused by phonemicization (allophones of the same phoneme become separate phonemes) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-in Old English, the pairs [s] and [z], [f] and [v], and [θ] and [ð] were allophones of the same phoneme, occurring predictably in complementary phonological environments (voiceless variant word-initially, word-finally and next to a voiceless sound X the voiced variant word-medially) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in Middle English environment no longer determines the sound, the allophones become unpredictable for external and internal reasons: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• French borrowings with initial [z] and [v], a position in which those sounds had never been found in Old English (zeal, zone, virtue) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• loss of final -e caused [z], [v], and [ð] to occur in final position, where Old English would have had [s], [f], and [θ] (maze, groove, bathe)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• simplification of the pronunciation of the double consonants [ff, ss, θ θ &amp;gt; f, s, θ] led to the voiceless variants occurring in medial position (offren, missen)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• [θ] in initial position in unstressed words as adverbs, pronouns, demonstratives, and conjunctions became voiced to [ð] (then, there, they, them, this, that, though) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- [c] became a separate phoneme from [k] (in large part because of borrowings like change from French which contained the sound [c] before back vowels)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- [y], shortly to be lost altogether, became a separate phoneme from [g] (because of Old Norse containing [g], rug).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''7. Describe the main changes in the vowel system during the ME period. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- changes both in the quality (place of articulation) and quantity (length) of vowels&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- around the 11th century  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Vowel Reduction- '''the most important qualitative sound change in Middle Englis &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the centralization and laxing of the short vowels a, o, u, and e to schwa in other syllables than those with primary stress (a vowel constitutes the nucleus of a syllable.)   The unstressed/weakly stressed syllables: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• the verbal prefixes and some nominal prefixes,  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• every syllable other than the first in a polysyllabic word,  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• the unstressed grammatical words, and,  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• all inflectional endings.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	strong correlation between stressed sequences and higher/more fronted vowels, and between unstressed sequences and lower/more centralized vowels (schwa is the most central vowel, the least distinguished)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the vowel in the final syllable is written -e; the sound is pronounced as schwa, in words longer than two syllables, all unstressed vowels could be reduced.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the long [y] merged with [í], and the short [y] with [i], as a result of unrounding. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	OE long [a] shifted to long [ɔ]  -	two long oo, written exactly the same, the upper or ‘close o ’ appears as [u], [u:], or [a] (loot, look, blood), while the open o appears as [ou] words spelled oa or i plus silent e (boat, rode) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the Old English long and short diphthongs became monophthongs eo &amp;gt; e, ea &amp;gt; ae.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Other changes: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	the merger of short a , ae, and ea as [a]  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	new diphthongs developed, four major sources of diphthongs in Middle English:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1.	borrowing - two diphthongs [oi] and [ui] from French (noise)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2.	vocalization of [w] to [u] after ME [a , ó, é, í] - this produces the diphthongs [au] as in strawe, [ou] as in glowen, [eu] as in fewe, and [iu] as in trewe, newe.  3.	vocalization of ʒ, either of [j] to [i] after ME front vowels or of [y] to [u] after ME back vowels - in the first case, this produces [sei], as in gray or leide', in the second case, it produces [au] as in drawe or lawe, and [ou] as in bowe or owen.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4.	development of a glide before h [x], either of [i] after ME front vowels or of [u] after ME back vowels: in the first case, this produces [aei] as in neigh or eighte; in the second case, this produces [au] as in taught, and [ou] as in dough.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''8. Discuss the influence of French spelling conventions on ME ortography.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the systematic, phonemic spelling system of Old English underwent a change in Middle English &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in addition to replacing runic symbols with Latin letters, Norman scribes introduced a number of Romance spelling conventions –&amp;gt; confusion of English spelling in which symbols no longer correspond exactly with sounds  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Consonants'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in the French system the h came to indicate the fricative quality of the neighboring s, t, c, and w (the sounds [š], [θ, ð], [č], and [hw]) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-ð disappeared early &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-ᚦ continued to be used and can be found even in some Early Modern printed texts. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- ch represents [č] in French borrowings into Middle English (chambre) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- c represents [s] before e and i, as (circuit), [k] before a, o, and u (cause, company, curious)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- digraph sc/sk [sk] in borrowed words (French scorn, scarlet, Old Norse sky, Latin scripture) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in French words, g [dʒ] before e and i (gingre), gu [g] before e and i (guide)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Vowels''' - for visual clarity, scribes inserted the symbol o in place of u when it appeared next to other letters written with downstrokes, as in some, wolf, loch (&amp;lt; sum, wulf, lull). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- y was used in place of i (nyce), y was also used for long [i], and for i in final position (life=lyf, thy) -to show that a preceding vowel is long, scribes might add a final e (bride)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- to indicate a short vowel, the next consonant was doubled (dinner) - i (medially), j (initially), u, v could represent both vowel and consonant sounds   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''9. Explain the terms: aureate terms, phonemicization, excrescent (speech sound).  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''aureate terms -'''direct Latin borrowings date from a later period than the French borrowings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- 15th century, when writers selfconsciously and extensively used rather artificial and unusual borrowings called aureate terms (meaning that the words were ‘gilded’), many of these have not survived into Modem English (abusion, dispone, and equipolent)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''phonemicization'''- process in which sounds that are originally allophones of the same phoneme become separate phonemes, an increase in the number of distinctive sounds  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''excrescent''' - the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially to the interior of a word, excrescent [t] OF ancien &amp;gt; ME ancien(t)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Aneta.Jerglova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=7._The_Grammar_of_Old_English&amp;diff=40140</id>
		<title>7. The Grammar of Old English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=7._The_Grammar_of_Old_English&amp;diff=40140"/>
		<updated>2016-12-12T20:37:00Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Aneta.Jerglova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Speculate on why was the be auxiliary in intransitive perfective forms completely replaced by have. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Modern English ‘I have gone’, (a perfect periphrase) x Old English: a finite form of have (or agan ‘to own’) + a past participle when the participle was a transitive verb (a verb taking a direct object), ‘the saint had healed him ’  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Anglo-Saxons used a finite form of be (or ‘to become’) when the participle was an intransitive verb (a verb not taking a direct object), such as a verb of motion or change of state, ‘the holy father was gone in’ (i.e. ‘had gone’) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the participle was sometimes inflected as an adjective, to agree with the object and with the subject, however, more often it is uninflected.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the perfect with be is identical in form to the passive, except that the passive is always formed with transitive verbs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- be has gradually been replaced by have in the perfect; remnant be-perfects such as  He is arrived now seem to describe the state of things rather than an action  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.	The chapter mentions cases in which grammatical gender concord could be violated. Do we find violations of concord (with respect to grammatical categories other than gender) in PDE?'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- when there is a conflict between natural gender and grammatical gender, we occasionally find that agreement between nouns and their pronouns is violated in Old English.  - when such violations occur, we can conclude that the OE system of grammatical gender is beginning to be replaced by a system of natural gender - multiple negation is common in Old English, it was abolished in the eighteenth century because it was felt to violate rules of logic, but speakers of earlier English seem to have employed it for emphasis.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3.	Explain the difference between natural and grammatical gender.  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''natural gender '''- in Modern English, linguistic gender is connected with the biological sex of the entity, thus personal pronouns (he, she, it) indicate the real-world sex of the object referred to; in a more limited way, compounds (e.g. boyfriend, girlfriend) and derivational affixes (e.g. heroine, actress, widower) do so   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''grammatical gender'''- French le jour ‘the day’ (masculine gender) and German das Weib ‘the woman’ (neuter gender), can be seen that grammatical gender has nothing to do with the real-world sex of the object; instead, it functions as a means of classifying nouns. The word gender in this sense is derived from Lat. genus, meaning ‘kind’. Old English expresses three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4.	Which dual forms are still used in PDE? '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Old English has complete sets of dual forms for the first and second persons meaning ‘we two’ and ‘you two’. Dual forms were lost in late Old English. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-Old English has a form indicating a single addressee and could thus distinguish between ‘one of you’ and ‘many of you’.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- The second-person singular forms (pu, pin, and pe) fell out of general use in Early Modern English, but they are still retained in certain religious contexts as thou, thine, and thee in Modern English.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
PDE- both vs. all, either vs. any, neither vs. none   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''5.	Describe the system of OE weak and strong adjectives. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- adjectives Old English adjectives are also inflected to show the gender, number, and case of the noun that they modify &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-two different sets of adjective endings: the strong declension (inherited from Proto-Indo-European) and the weak declension (a Germanic innovation).   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The weak declension- '''used when the noun is accompanied by any other modifier, such as a demonstrative (e.g. that large book), a numeral (e.g. two large books), or a possessive adjective (e.g. my large book). It is also used when the adjective is in the comparative or superlative degree (e.g. larger book, largest book) or appears in direct address (e.g. John, dear son, you . . .)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The strong declension'''- used when the noun is not otherwise modified or when the adjective follows the verb to be (e.g. That book is large).   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the weak declension communicates definite reference (e.g. those large books refers to specific or particular large books), whereas the strong declension communicates indefinite reference (e.g. large books refers to any large books).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- this complicated system has been completely lost over time; none of the adjectival endings, either from the weak or the strong declension, live on in Modern English.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''6.	Describe OE system of demonstrative pronouns, indicating connections with modern-day demonstrative forms and articles.  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Demonstratives''':- demonstratives and adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in number, gender, and case  two sets of demonstratives: - one pointing to a referent close to the speaker (this/these)  - one to a referent further away (that/those) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- a deictic function, which is a way of saying that their meaning depends on the speech situation and encodes the speaker’s perspective. (Some other forms with deictic meaning are here/ there, then/now, and I/you.)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- function as either adjectives modifying a noun (this book is mine) or as pronouns standing in place of a noun (this is my book).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in Modern English, demonstratives indicate the number of the noun they modify (this book versus these books) x in Old English, they also indicate the gender and case of the noun they modify - many inflected forms, Modern English has retained the nominative neuter singular of each demonstrative (pcet &amp;gt; that, pis &amp;gt; this). With certain analogical additions it has also retained the nominative and accusative plural of the first demonstrative (pa &amp;gt; those) and the nominative masculine singular of the second demonstrative (pes &amp;gt; these).   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Articles''': - definite article the grew out of the nominative singular masculine of the first demonstrative, se (later pe). This happened in Middle English, along with the emergence of the indefinite article, a/an, which developed from the numeral an, meaning ‘one’.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-in Old English, however, no article is required.  - We cannot be certain exactly when the demonstrative and numeral began to serve as articles, but it is probably best to translate the first OE demonstrative as ‘that’ rather than ‘the’, and an as ‘a certain one’, not ‘a/an’.    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''7.	Explain the term suppletive paradigm. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Old English has some adjectival paradigms in which the different inflected forms not only show different endings but are formed from different roots. This is called a suppletive, or mixed, paradigm (the ModE suppletive paradigms good/better/best and much/more/ most = direct descendants of the Old English forms) The suppletive paradigm of the verb be present 1st p. am/em, past  was/wes  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''8.	Explain the origin of expressions such as “two-hour flight” (× *two-hours flight) or “twenty-mile walk” (× *twenty-miles walk).'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the genitive of measure expresses some sort of measurement or extent, as in ModE expressions such as six foot tall or two month long, where what appears to be a singular {foot, month) is actually an old genitive plural with loss of the final -a.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''9.	Describe the differences between OE weak and strong verbs. How do they relate to PDE regular and irregular verbs?  '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Weak verbs-''' the majority of verbs in Old English, but not common verbs &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- an innovation of the Germanic languages, forming their preterit with a dental suffix (-ed) that became the productive pattern for new verbs added to the language. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- derived in Germanic from other parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, or strong verbs) by the addition of a derivational suffix  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- divided into 3 classes  Strong verbs- many of the most common Old English verbs are strong &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- form their tenses by the IE process of ablaut, or vowel gradation &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in Germanic, the ablaut grades of PIE (e-grade, o-grade. and zero grade) become regularized in the strong verbs in a number of basic patterns which underlie the seven classes of strong verbs &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Even in those that have remained strong, the distinction between singular and plural past has been lost (except for the past tense of the verb to be).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''10.	How was the passive expressed in OE? '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- tense and mood are expressed by inflection in the OE verb, passive is expressed by periphrastic form (separate words or phrases rather than by word endings) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the verbal distinction of voice indicates whether the subject of the sentence is acting (active) or is acted upon (passive)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the inflectional forms of Old English are all active in meaning; the passive is expressed by a verbal phrase.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- The passive periphrase of Old English is very similar to that of Modern English:  finite form of be + a past participle + a prepositional phrase naming the agent.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- unlike Modern English, Old English could also use a finite form of weorfian ‘to become’, and the prepositions marking the agent are ‘from ’ or ‘through’ rather than by &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- as in Modern English, the agent phrase is optional.   ‘there were healed by the holy woman many sick men“ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- passive could also be conveyed by indefinite pronoun “one” and an active verb: ‘one can still see their track’ = ‘their track can still be seen'  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''11.	What are impersonal constructions? Try to discuss their loss from a typological point of view.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Old English has a number of impersonal verbs, with no personal nominative subject &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the personal subject (usually an experiencer) is expressed in the accusative, genitive, or dative case him (dat.) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-‘it thirsted to him ’ (ModE ‘he was thirsty’); me (acc.) ‘there was a longing to m e’ (ModE ‘I longed’); me (dat.) ‘it pleases me to read’ (ModE ‘I like to read’)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- when translating these impersonal constructions into Modern English, either an it subject must be supplied or the construction must given a personal subject  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''12.	Discuss negation in OE. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Negative declarative main clauses have one of the following orders:  1. negative + {auxiliary, verb} + subject + (object) . . .  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. subject + negative + {auxiliary, verb} + (object) . . .  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- in Old English, the negative particle ne is inserted before the verb or auxiliary  X  in Modern English the negative particle follows rather than precedes the auxiliary, and negative sentences require an auxiliary verb (John does not like movies  x *John not likes movies or *John likes not movies)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the negative particle may be contracted (Modern English- suffixing not to the preceding auxiliary &amp;gt; wouldn’t x Old English, ne is prefixed to the verb or auxiliary &amp;gt; e.g. ne + waes ‘was’ &amp;gt; naes; ne + habban ‘have’ &amp;gt; nabban; ne + willan ‘w ill’ &amp;gt; nyllan - ne can also be attached to adverbs, pronouns, and adjectives in a similar fashion:  ne + an ‘one’ &amp;gt; nan ‘none’; ne + cefre ‘ever’ &amp;gt; ncefre ‘never’ - when ne is joined to the verb or auxiliary, the contraction tends to move to the front of the sentence, resulting in an inverted word order &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- multiple negation is common in Old English: ‘not-was then not-any delay’, it was proscribed in the eighteenth century because it was felt to violate rules of logic, but speakers of earlier English seem to have employed it for emphasis.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''13.	Discuss inversion in OE and compare it with cases of inverted word order in PDE. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''a) In negation '''- when ne is joined to the verb or auxiliary, the contraction tends to move to the front of the sentence, resulting in an inverted word order  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- multiple negation is common in Old English: ‘not-was then not-any delay’, it was proscribed in the eighteenth century because it was felt to violate rules of logic, but speakers of earlier English seem to have employed it for emphasis.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''b)Initial Adverb of Time/Place'''  - Main clauses have the following order: adverb + {verb, auxiliary} + subject + (object)  ‘then grant I it to Athelfleth my daughter’; ‘here in this year Cnut came with his army’  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- sentences invert the subject and verb after an adverb of time &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- PDE: Never have I imagined that ...  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''c)Interrogative Sentences''' - interrogative pronoun + {auxiliary, verb} + subject + (object)  ‘What gives he to you?’; ‘Which craft know you?’ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the third instance of inverted word order in Old English.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- there are two major types of questions in English: yes/no questions (e.g. Did you see a movie?) and content questions (e.g. What movie did you see?), in Modern English, both types require that an auxiliary verb precede the subject x in Old English, either an auxiliary or a verb precedes the subject but the auxiliary is not obligatory, as we just saw in looking at negation.  ''&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Aneta.Jerglova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38552</id>
		<title>1. Introduction: Welcome to HEL</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38552"/>
		<updated>2016-10-20T14:13:47Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Aneta.Jerglova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;1. Important concepts and terms to explain: synchrony and diachrony; continuity, change and variation (divided usage); English historical linguistics, general linguistics, philology; comparison as the principal method; chronology: Old English (c. 700–1100), Middle English (1100– 1500), Early Modern English (1500–1700), Late Modern English (1700–1900), Present-Day English (PDE; 1900– ); biblical translation: Wycliffite; Authorised Version.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''SYNCHRONY AND DIACHRONY '''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Diachrony''': is the change in the meaning of words over time. is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary meaning of words. A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Synchrony: '''A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. That is how languages compare to each other at any given point in time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CONTINUITY, CHANGE AND VARIATION (DIVIDED USAGE) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Continuity:''' Language exhibits so much complexity that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form; therefore it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our primate ancestors.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Change''': is variation over time in a language's phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features. It is studied by historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Variation:''' Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same thing. Speakers may vary pronunciation (accent), word choice (lexicon), or morphology and syntax (sometimes called &amp;quot;grammar&amp;quot;). But while the diversity of variation is great, there seem to be boundaries on variation – speakers do not generally make drastic alterations in sentence word order or use novel sounds that are completely foreign to the language being spoken. It is studied by sociolinguists.  variation in present‐day system of language: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	one “function“ rendered by two or several „forms“  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	the sense of a starting change  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	or a change as yet uncompleted o  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
examples of variation:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
o	grammar: shone vs. shined &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	grammar / pronunciation / spelling:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	loaf/loaves  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	reef/reefs (but cf. reeve) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	divided usage: hoof/hoofs, hooves, scarf/scarfs, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	(cf. Tolkien on elf/elves vs. elf/elfs)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''ENGLISH HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS, GENERAL LINGUISTICS, PHILOLOGY'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''English Historical Linguistics:''' English historical linguistics is a subfield of linguistics which has developed theories and methods for exploring the history of the English language. It aims to study the long diachrony of English. Its aim is to learn about almost 1,300 years of recorded history of English to understand the present form and function of the language.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''General Linguistics:''' A study of the phenomena, historical changes, and functions of language without restriction to a particular language or to a particular aspect (as phonetics, grammar, stylistics) of language. Its aim is to learn, from the evidence of the one language, about general rules of language change and variation.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Philology:''' Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics. It is more commonly defined as the study of literary texts and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. Its aim is to learn, through language, about the changing historical, social and cultural profile of the English‐speaking community.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''COMPARISON AS THE PRINCIPAL METHOD ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	procedures and sources used for comparison:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
comparison of texts (synchronic and diachronic)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
interdisciplinary comparison (e.g. textual record vs. archeological evidence)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
evidence of closely related languages (e.g. English vs. the Germanic; Latin as a paragon language of culture)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language‐specific evidence vs. universally observed tendencies (e.g. the structure of phonological systems)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
metalinguistic comments (by grammarians, orthographers etc.) on contemporary use of language  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
rhymes, puns etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
variation in Present‐Day English   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CHRONOLOGY''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''OLD ENGLISH (Anglo‐Saxon; c. 700–1100) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the first records (c. A.D. 700) to the Norman Conquest (A.D. 1066 &amp;gt; A.D.1100)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “full” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language of a highly inflected morphological structure and thoroughly Germanic wordstock  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
idea of a continuous development in time: Proto‐Germanic – West Germanic – Anglo‐Frisian – Old English – Middle English   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100–1500): ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the Norman Conquest to c. A.D.1500  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “reduced” endings (= restricted inflection): cf. OE singan– ME singen, singe –  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EModE (to) sing  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
expansion of a written standard form and its increasing homogeneity  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
end of the medieval feudal system and the rise of Renaissance dukes and courtiers  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
beginning of humanism in England  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
breakaway of Church (1534)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
discovery of America (1492)    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (1500–1800):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “lost” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
centralisation of RP standard: stable relative homogeneity emerging out of the maze of coexisting, regional, social, diachronic a stylistic variants  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
fixation of spelling  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
“New Englishes“ – extraterritorial varieties start taking root   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''LATE MODERN ENGLISH (1700–1900):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
change in vocabulary   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
accumulated many more words as a result of two main historical factors:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the Industrial Revolution, which necessitated new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the rise of the British Empire, during which time English adopted many foreign words and made them its own  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH (PDE; 1900– ) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
suffix in adverbs: Today there is a residue of adverbs without the suffix, e.g. far, fast, long, much.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the subjunctive and the modal auxiliaries, tense auxiliaries (future and [plu]perfect), passive, and the progressive (be + -ing)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''BIBLICAL TRANSLATION – JOHN WYCLIFFE ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wycliffe was an advocate for translation of the Bible into the vernacular. He completed a translation directly from the Vulgate into Middle English in the year 1382, now known as Wycliffe's Bible.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. Why is directionality of language change disputable?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is quite clear that [u] presumably never changes to [a] in one step, or that [l] never changes to [b], is not surprising, whereas the unidirectionality of the [u] &amp;gt; [y] change and the [l] &amp;gt; [w] change is much harder to explain.  “&amp;quot;One of the most powerful tools in the armamentarium of linguists engaged in the study of diachronic phonology is the often implicit notion that some changes are phonetically more likely than others . Thus if a linguist finds a systematic correspondence between [g] and [dJ] in two related language varieties, it will be reasonable to assume that the stop is the older variant and the affricate the younger one until strong counter evidence is found. The linguist makes such an assumption because experience with many languages has shown that the change of [g] to [dJ] is fairly common and tends to occur under certain welldocumented conditions whereas the reverse change is unusual and problematic.“ Ferguson, 1990 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. What is the difference between “linguistics” and “philology”?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The distinction between Linguistics and Philology, in simplified terms, is often one of medium: Linguistics focusing on spoken language while Philology, on written language. Philology is the branch of linguistic study devoted to comparative and historical research into the development of languages. In a wider sense, the term sometimes also covers the study of literary texts. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.What are our limitations in access to languages of the past? &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I would say that the main limitation is the fact that there are no recordings of the spoken language from the past, so we have to rely on the written form which probably noticeably differed from the spoken form. Moreover, the first texts were usually of religious nature, so there aren’t enough sources of the “common language” which people used to speak to one another in their private lives etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
6. Provide (preferably your own) examples of variation at various linguistic levels of PDE. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The genitive variation – ‘s or of (that boy’s dog, the dog of that boy). Glottalisation of /t/ (bottle /bɔʔḷ/) on American English X British English. Hung vs hanged.&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Aneta.Jerglova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38550</id>
		<title>1. Introduction: Welcome to HEL</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38550"/>
		<updated>2016-10-20T14:05:10Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Aneta.Jerglova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;1. Important concepts and terms to explain: synchrony and diachrony; continuity, change and variation (divided usage); English historical linguistics, general linguistics, philology; comparison as the principal method; chronology: Old English (c. 700–1100), Middle English (1100– 1500), Early Modern English (1500–1700), Late Modern English (1700–1900), Present-Day English (PDE; 1900– ); biblical translation: Wycliffite; Authorised Version.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
SYNCHRONY AND DIACHRONY  Diachrony: is the change in the meaning of words over time. is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary meaning of words. A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship. Synchrony: A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. That is how languages compare to each other at any given point in time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.  CONTINUITY, CHANGE AND VARIATION (DIVIDED USAGE) Continuity: Language exhibits so much complexity that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form; therefore it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our primate ancestors.  Change: is variation over time in a language's phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features. It is studied by historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics. Variation: Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same thing. Speakers may vary pronunciation (accent), word choice (lexicon), or morphology and syntax (sometimes called &amp;quot;grammar&amp;quot;). But while the diversity of variation is great, there seem to be boundaries on variation – speakers do not generally make drastic alterations in sentence word order or use novel sounds that are completely foreign to the language being spoken. It is studied by sociolinguists.  variation in present‐day system of language: •	one “function“ rendered by two or several „forms“ •	the sense of a starting change •	or a change as yet uncompleted o	examples of variation: o	grammar: shone vs. shined •	grammar / pronunciation / spelling: •	loaf/loaves •	reef/reefs (but cf. reeve) •	divided usage: hoof/hoofs, hooves, scarf/scarfs, •	(cf. Tolkien on elf/elves vs. elf/elfs) ENGLISH HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS, GENERAL LINGUISTICS, PHILOLOGY English Historical Linguistics: English historical linguistics is a subfield of linguistics which has developed theories and methods for exploring the history of the English language. It aims to study the long diachrony of English. Its aim is to learn about almost 1,300 years of recorded history of English to understand the present form and function of the language. General Linguistics: A study of the phenomena, historical changes, and functions of language without restriction to a particular language or to a particular aspect (as phonetics, grammar, stylistics) of language. Its aim is to learn, from the evidence of the one language, about general rules of language change and variation. Philology: Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics. It is more commonly defined as the study of literary texts and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. Its aim is to learn, through language, about the changing historical, social and cultural profile of the English‐speaking community. COMPARISON AS THE PRINCIPAL METHOD •	procedures and sources used for comparison: –	comparison of texts (synchronic and diachronic) –	interdisciplinary comparison (e.g. textual record vs. archeological evidence) –	evidence of closely related languages (e.g. English vs. the Germanic; Latin as a paragon language of culture) –	language‐specific evidence vs. universally observed tendencies (e.g. the structure of phonological systems) –	metalinguistic comments (by grammarians, orthographers etc.) on contemporary use of language –	rhymes, puns etc. –	variation in Present‐Day English CHRONOLOGY •	OLD ENGLISH (Anglo‐Saxon; c. 700–1100) –	from the first records (c. A.D. 700) to the Norman Conquest (A.D. 1066 &amp;gt; A.D.1100) –	period of “full” endings –	language of a highly inflected morphological structure and thoroughly Germanic wordstock –	idea of a continuous development in time: Proto‐Germanic – West Germanic – Anglo‐Frisian – Old English – Middle English •	MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100–1500): o	from the Norman Conquest to c. A.D.1500 o	period of “reduced” endings (= restricted inflection): cf. OE singan– ME singen, singe – o	EModE (to) sing o	expansion of a written standard form and its increasing homogeneity o	end of the medieval feudal system and the rise of Renaissance dukes and courtiers o	beginning of humanism in England o	breakaway of Church (1534) o	discovery of America (1492)  •	EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (1500–1800): –	period of “lost” endings –	centralisation of RP standard: stable relative homogeneity emerging out of the maze of coexisting, regional, social, diachronic a stylistic variants –	fixation of spelling –	“New Englishes“ – extraterritorial varieties start taking root •	LATE MODERN ENGLISH (1700–1900): –	change in vocabulary  –	accumulated many more words as a result of two main historical factors:  o	the Industrial Revolution, which necessitated new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed o	the rise of the British Empire, during which time English adopted many foreign words and made them its own •	PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH (PDE; 1900– ) o	suffix in adverbs: Today there is a residue of adverbs without the suffix, e.g. far, fast, long, much. o	the subjunctive and the modal auxiliaries, tense auxiliaries (future and [plu]perfect), passive, and the progressive (be + -ing) BIBLICAL TRANSLATION – JOHN WYCLIFFE Wycliffe was an advocate for translation of the Bible into the vernacular. He completed a translation directly from the Vulgate into Middle English in the year 1382, now known as Wycliffe's Bible. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. Why is directionality of language change disputable?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is quite clear that [u] presumably never changes to [a] in one step, or that [l] never changes to [b], is not surprising, whereas the unidirectionality of the [u] &amp;gt; [y] change and the [l] &amp;gt; [w] change is much harder to explain.  “&amp;quot;One of the most powerful tools in the armamentarium of linguists engaged in the study of diachronic phonology is the often implicit notion that some changes are phonetically more likely than others . Thus if a linguist finds a systematic correspondence between [g] and [dJ] in two related language varieties, it will be reasonable to assume that the stop is the older variant and the affricate the younger one until strong counter evidence is found. The linguist makes such an assumption because experience with many languages has shown that the change of [g] to [dJ] is fairly common and tends to occur under certain welldocumented conditions whereas the reverse change is unusual and problematic.“ Ferguson, 1990 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. What is the difference between “linguistics” and “philology”?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The distinction between Linguistics and Philology, in simplified terms, is often one of medium: Linguistics focusing on spoken language while Philology, on written language. Philology is the branch of linguistic study devoted to comparative and historical research into the development of languages. In a wider sense, the term sometimes also covers the study of literary texts.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.What are our limitations in access to languages of the past? &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I would say that the main limitation is the fact that there are no recordings of the spoken language from the past, so we have to rely on the written form which probably noticeably differed from the spoken form. Moreover, the first texts were usually of religious nature, so there aren’t enough sources of the “common language” which people used to speak to one another in their private lives etc. &lt;br /&gt;
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6. Provide (preferably your own) examples of variation at various linguistic levels of PDE. &lt;br /&gt;
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The genitive variation – ‘s or of (that boy’s dog, the dog of that boy). Glottalisation of /t/ (bottle /bɔʔḷ/) on American English X British English. Hung vs hanged.&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Aneta.Jerglova</name></author>
		
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