<?xml version="1.0"?>
<feed xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" xml:lang="cs">
	<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Anna.Araslanova</id>
	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
	<link rel="self" type="application/atom+xml" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Anna.Araslanova"/>
	<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/wiki/Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:P%C5%99%C3%ADsp%C4%9Bvky/Anna.Araslanova"/>
	<updated>2026-05-15T14:22:06Z</updated>
	<subtitle>Příspěvky uživatele</subtitle>
	<generator>MediaWiki 1.33.0</generator>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18456</id>
		<title>The Early Modern English Period</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18456"/>
		<updated>2015-04-01T17:42:47Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Araslanova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
1. '''Discuss the interplay between politics and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The period of the Tudors was relatively peaceful which provided the circumstances for economic stability and growth. The centre of market was London and South East where many people migrated (=&amp;gt; dialect contact). The stability of the period also contributed to standardization of the language (compare to the unrest of the 15th century when people did not care about the language that much). The rule of the Stuarts led to the Civil War and, consequently, to Commonwealth: theatres were closed, the whole set of social norms became extremely Puritanic. With the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 the situation radically changed, there was more freedom. Besides, the new king, Charles II, brought French back in fashion (=&amp;gt; loan words). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It was agreed that ''the standard English would be based upon Southern dialects'', particularly upon the speech of the well-bred and well-educated. This led to the split between a highly prescriptive, 'correct', ''Standard English'' (for writing) and the colloquial ''General English'' (a covert norm). Since dialect contact offered sets of linguistic alternatives, the choice made by the speaker turned out to be a ''marker'' of his identity. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Discuss the interplay between religion and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although Latin still was the language of the Church, the influence of Lutheran Reformation on the Continent could not be ignored. William Tyndale, inspired by the example of Martin Luther, translated the New Testament (his base were Greek and Hebrew texts, not their Latin translation). His translation was influential due to printing and due to the fact that later translations drew on his. From the linguistic point of view, religious texts were quite conservative. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Since Puritanism and Quakerism, flourishing at the time, were reflections of the concerns of the middle and the lower classes respectively, and people of these classes rarely knew Latin, their growing influence meant the growing influence — and usage — of English. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. '''Assess the role on the following fields in the development of English in the period.''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) '''technology''': The printing press caused a high degree of regulation of ortography, influencing spelling (which in fact became more Latin-like, respecting the etymologies of the words), letters of alphabet and capitalization (mainly in nouns). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public spelling was determined by printers. At that point all the letters in ''the alphabet''''' '''are familiar to the present day speaker of English, although their use somewhat differed. Another important point is that the clients of printers usually belonged to the middle class and they rarely knew any Latin; that is why printers ''preferred to publish books in English''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) '''science''': The period was marked by strong lexical borrowing from classical languages (although generally the trend in the middle of the 16th century was against it) in specific fields such as science, medicine or religion. Scientists used Latin to achieve a style both simple and clear and in popular science writing the authors had to make the Latinized vocabulary clear either by offering a gloss, or by coupling a new term with an old, approximately synonymous one.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Scientists mostly used the classical languages (=&amp;gt; borrowings from Latin), not so much for the sake of style but because terms seldom had English equivalents; besides, Latin and Greek terms were more preferable in terms of international discourse. The Royal Society, established in 1662, decided to improve the language; it was influential due to the style of writing which was short and factual.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) '''translation''': The former major act of translation was Wycliffe's vernacular translation of the Bible. Tyndale's translation of the Bible (finished only the New Testament), the most imporatnt translation of the period, differed from the previous one because it was based on the Greek and Hebrew texts, not on their Latin translation. This became influential for all the important translations to follow, such as the King James / Authorized Version (1611).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A substantial number of classical works were translated into English during the 16th century thus a lot of words were introduced where there was no satisfactory English equivalent.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) '''literature''': It was the period marked by the beginning of the literary boom including Marlowe, Shakespeare, Johnson, Spenser o Milton; the spread of literacy brought along also the discussion on freedom of expression (within certain limits).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is especially important for the language as it marks the process of re-evaluation of sciences, renewed interest in classical writing. The spread of literacy was happening among the middle class who knew little or no Latin.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration literature was very wide ranging, much of the period is a confirmation of earlier traditions, there is also a great deal of emphasis on the theatre and on comedy. There is a steep distinction between the language of religious literature and that of drama. While religious literature remained linguistically rather conservative (Milton - difficult text, meandering syntax, referential opacity), the language of Restauration comedies ridiculed the affected colloquial speech (Congreve - straightforward text, expressing the superficial ideals of the society in London). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration ended antipathy toward foreign ideas with consequences for the language: French ideas, ideals as well as the use of French loan world started to increase bringing the time of politeness and rejection of provincial language. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. '''What subsystems of English (such as e.g. spelling) were most strongly affected by the process of standardisation in this period?''' &lt;br /&gt;
* '''spelling''': regulation of the alphabet. &lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pronunciation: '''Great Vowel Shift. &lt;br /&gt;
* Consonant Inventory: because of the establishment of /ŋ/ and /ʒ/ as phonemes. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Vocabulary:'''  &lt;br /&gt;
** borrowings from French, Dutch and Latin &lt;br /&gt;
** word formation &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Meaning:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** change of semantic field relations &lt;br /&gt;
** broadening/narrowing &lt;br /&gt;
** amelioration/pejoration &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verbs:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** do-periphrasis &lt;br /&gt;
** periphrastic expressions of aspect, voice and tense &lt;br /&gt;
** weakness of inflections &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Noun Phrase''' &lt;br /&gt;
** demostratives: distinction of the distance between the hearer and the speaker (this/that/yon) &lt;br /&gt;
** who = animate; which = all others &lt;br /&gt;
** adjective comparison: more/most &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Word Order:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** affirmative declarative sentences: S-V. &lt;br /&gt;
** interrogatives without do-periphrasis: V-S &lt;br /&gt;
** initial adverb triggers V-S inverstion &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pragmatics:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** you/thou &lt;br /&gt;
** titles &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.  '''The Great Vowel Shift''' &amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 123-154 pp.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* mismatch between spelling and pronunciation: begun in ME, spelling fixed by early XVI century, but the sound kept changing). &lt;br /&gt;
* change of quality of all long vowels (stressed syllables)&lt;br /&gt;
* standardization of the language: synthetic -&amp;gt; analytic &lt;br /&gt;
* most significant of all phonological developments in English&lt;br /&gt;
* change in pronunciaion of verb tense&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;glottopedia.org&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;[[File:350px-GVS.jpg|400px]]&lt;br /&gt;
6. '''What kind of social relationship does the usage of singular you and thou reflect in Elizabethan society?'''&lt;br /&gt;
* used to express power relations&lt;br /&gt;
* ''thou ''becoming an exceptional form&lt;br /&gt;
* ''you ''used in order to show respect (everyone regarded due to his/her social status)&lt;br /&gt;
** children addressing their parent as ''you ''and being addressed as ''thou''&lt;br /&gt;
* Bruti: use of you/thou based on social distance and emotional attitude&lt;br /&gt;
** inferiors addressed as ''thou'', equals as ''you/thou'' and superiors as ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
** anger/contempt or familiarity/intimacy expressed by the use of ''thou'', neutrality/indifference with ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
7. '''Explain the terms:'''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''koineization''' is dialect levelling due to the dialect contact; the process by which a new variety of a language emerges from the mixing, leveling, and simplifying of different dialects; it can be also called dialect mixing. A new variety of a language that develops as a result of this process is called a koine.&lt;br /&gt;
* '''prescriptivism '''is &amp;quot;a view of language which is largely motivated by the move to define what is 'correct' and to condenm what is, consequently, 'incorrect'.&amp;quot;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Chapter resources for ''The History of English: The Introduction ''by Stephan Gramley http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/chapters/05/links-05.pdf&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* '''codification '''is the process of standardasing and developing a norm &lt;br /&gt;
* '''hard words (inkhorn terms)''' — a derogatory way to refer to the new words which have Latin origin, hence their meaning is opaque&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Araslanova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18455</id>
		<title>The Early Modern English Period</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18455"/>
		<updated>2015-04-01T15:42:38Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Araslanova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
1. '''Discuss the interplay between politics and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The period of the Tudors was relatively peaceful which provided the circumstances for economic stability and growth. The centre of market was London and South East where many people migrated (=&amp;gt; dialect contact). The stability of the period also contributed to standardization of the language (compare to the unrest of the 15th century when people did not care about the language that much). The rule of the Stuarts led to the Civil War and, consequently, to Commonwealth: theatres were closed, the whole set of social norms became extremely Puritanic. With the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 the situation radically changed, there was more freedom. Besides, the new king, Charles II, brought French back in fashion (=&amp;gt; loan words). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It was agreed that ''the standard English would be based upon Southern dialects'', particularly upon the speech of the well-bred and well-educated. This led to the split between a highly prescriptive, 'correct', ''Standard English'' (for writing) and the colloquial ''General English'' (a covert norm). Since dialect contact offered sets of linguistic alternatives, the choice made by the speaker turned out to be a ''marker'' of his identity. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Discuss the interplay between religion and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although Latin still was the language of the Church, the influence of Lutheran Reformation on the Continent could not be ignored. William Tyndale, inspired by the example of Martin Luther, translated the New Testament (his base were Greek and Hebrew texts, not their Latin translation). His translation was influential due to printing and due to the fact that later translations drew on his. From the linguistic point of view, religious texts were quite conservative. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Since Puritanism and Quakerism, flourishing at the time, were reflections of the concerns of the middle and the lower classes respectively, and people of these classes rarely knew Latin, their growing influence meant the growing influence — and usage — of English. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. '''Assess the role on the following fields in the development of English in the period.''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) '''technology''': The printing press caused a high degree of regulation of ortography, influencing spelling (which in fact became more Latin-like, respecting the etymologies of the words), letters of alphabet and capitalization (mainly in nouns). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public spelling was determined by printers. At that point all the letters in ''the alphabet''''' '''are familiar to the present day speaker of English, although their use somewhat differed. Another important point is that the clients of printers usually belonged to the middle class and they rarely knew any Latin; that is why printers ''preferred to publish books in English''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) '''science''': The period was marked by strong lexical borrowing from classical languages (although generally the trend in the middle of the 16th century was against it) in specific fields such as science, medicine or religion. Scientists used Latin to achieve a style both simple and clear and in popular science writing the authors had to make the Latinized vocabulary clear either by offering a gloss, or by coupling a new term with an old, approximately synonymous one.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Scientists mostly used the classical languages (=&amp;gt; borrowings from Latin), not so much for the sake of style but because terms seldom had English equivalents; besides, Latin and Greek terms were more preferable in terms of international discourse. The Royal Society, established in 1662, decided to improve the language; it was influential due to the style of writing which was short and factual.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) '''translation''': The former major act of translation was Wycliffe's vernacular translation of the Bible. Tyndale's translation of the Bible (finished only the New Testament), the most imporatnt translation of the period, differed from the previous one because it was based on the Greek and Hebrew texts, not on their Latin translation. This became influential for all the important translations to follow, such as the King James / Authorized Version (1611).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A substantial number of classical works were translated into English during the 16th century thus a lot of words were introduced where there was no satisfactory English equivalent.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) '''literature''': It was the period marked by the beginning of the literary boom including Marlowe, Shakespeare, Johnson, Spenser o Milton; the spread of literacy brought along also the discussion on freedom of expression (within certain limits).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is especially important for the language as it marks the process of re-evaluation of sciences, renewed interest in classical writing. The spread of literacy was happening among the middle class who knew little or no Latin.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration literature was very wide ranging, much of the period is a confirmation of earlier traditions, there is also a great deal of emphasis on the theatre and on comedy. There is a steep distinction between the language of religious literature and that of drama. While religious literature remained linguistically rather conservative (Milton - difficult text, meandering syntax, referential opacity), the language of Restauration comedies ridiculed the affected colloquial speech (Congreve - straightforward text, expressing the superficial ideals of the society in London). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration ended antipathy toward foreign ideas with consequences for the language: French ideas, ideals as well as the use of French loan world started to increase bringing the time of politeness and rejection of provincial language. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. '''What subsystems of English (such as e.g. spelling) were most strongly affected by the process of standardisation in this period?''' &lt;br /&gt;
* '''spelling''': regulation of the alphabet. &lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pronunciation: '''Great Vowel Shift. &lt;br /&gt;
* Consonant Inventory: because of the establishment of /ŋ/ and /ʒ/ as phonemes. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Vocabulary:'''  &lt;br /&gt;
** borrowings from French, Dutch and Latin &lt;br /&gt;
** word formation &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Meaning:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** change of semantic field relations &lt;br /&gt;
** broadening/narrowing &lt;br /&gt;
** amelioration/pejoration &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verbs:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** do-periphrasis &lt;br /&gt;
** periphrastic expressions of aspect, voice and tense &lt;br /&gt;
** weakness of inflections &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Noun Phrase''' &lt;br /&gt;
** demostratives: distinction of the distance between the hearer and the speaker (this/that/yon) &lt;br /&gt;
** who = animate; which = all others &lt;br /&gt;
** adjective comparison: more/most &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Word Order:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** affirmative declarative sentences: S-V. &lt;br /&gt;
** interrogatives without do-periphrasis: V-S &lt;br /&gt;
** initial adverb triggers V-S inverstion &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pragmatics:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** you/thou &lt;br /&gt;
** titles &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.  '''The Great Vowel Shift''' &amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 123-154 pp.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* mismatch between spelling and pronunciation: begun in ME, spelling fixed by early XVI century, but the sound kept changing). &lt;br /&gt;
* change of quality of all long vowels (stressed syllables)&lt;br /&gt;
* standardization of the language: synthetic -&amp;gt; analytic &lt;br /&gt;
* most significant of all phonological developments in English&lt;br /&gt;
* change in pronunciaion of verb tense&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;glottopedia.org&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;[[File:350px-GVS.jpg|400px]]&lt;br /&gt;
6. '''What kind of social relationship does the usage of singular you and thou reflect in Elizabethan society?'''&lt;br /&gt;
* used to express power relations&lt;br /&gt;
* ''thou ''becoming an exceptional form&lt;br /&gt;
* ''you ''used in order to show respect (everyone regarded due to his/her social status)&lt;br /&gt;
** children addressing their parent as ''you ''and being addressed as ''thou''&lt;br /&gt;
* Bruti: use of you/thou based on social distance and emotional attitude&lt;br /&gt;
** inferiors addressed as ''thou'', equals as ''you/thou'' and superiors as ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
** anger/contempt or familiarity/intimacy expressed by the use of ''thou'', neutrality/indifference with ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
7. '''Explain the terms:'''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''koineization''' is dialect levelling due to the dialect contact, the process by which a new variety of a language emerges from the mixing, leveling, and simplifying of different dialects, it is also known as dialect mixing. A new variety of a language that develops as a result of koineization is known as a koiné.&lt;br /&gt;
* '''prescriptivism '''is &amp;quot;a view of language which is largely motivated by the move to define what is 'correct' and to condenm what is, consequently, 'incorrect'.&amp;quot;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Chapter resources for ''The History of English: The Introduction ''by Stephan Gramley http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/chapters/05/links-05.pdf&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* '''codification '''is the process of standardasing and developing a norm &lt;br /&gt;
* '''hard words (inkhorn terms)''' — a derogatory way to refer to the new words which have Latin origin, hence their meaning is opaque&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Araslanova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18454</id>
		<title>The Early Modern English Period</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18454"/>
		<updated>2015-04-01T15:32:40Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Araslanova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
1. '''Discuss the interplay between politics and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The period of the Tudors was relatively peaceful which provided the circumstances for economic stability and growth. The centre of market was London and South East where many people migrated (=&amp;gt; dialect contact). The stability of the period also contributed to standardization of the language (compare to the unrest of the 15th century when people did not care about the language that much). The rule of the Stuarts led to the Civil War and, consequently, to Commonwealth: theatres were closed, the whole set of social norms became extremely Puritanic. With the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 the situation radically changed, there was more freedom. Besides, the new king, Charles II, brought French back in fashion (=&amp;gt; loan words). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It was agreed that ''the standard English would be based upon Southern dialects'', particularly upon the speech of the well-bred and well-educated. This led to the split between a highly prescriptive, 'correct', ''Standard English'' (for writing) and the colloquial ''General English'' (a covert norm). Since dialect contact offered sets of linguistic alternatives, the choice made by the speaker turned out to be a ''marker'' of his identity. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Discuss the interplay between religion and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although Latin still was the language of the Church, the influence of Lutheran Reformation on the Continent could not be ignored. William Tyndale, inspired by the example of Martin Luther, translated the New Testament (his base were Greek and Hebrew texts, not their Latin translation). His translation was influential due to printing and due to the fact that later translations drew on his. From the linguistic point of view, religious texts were quite conservative. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Since Puritanism and Quakerism, flourishing at the time, were reflections of the concerns of the middle and the lower classes respectively, and people of these classes rarely knew Latin, their growing influence meant the growing influence — and usage — of English. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. '''Assess the role on the following fields in the development of English in the period.''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) '''technology''': The printing press caused a high degree of regulation of ortography, influencing spelling (which in fact became more Latin-like, respecting the etymologies of the words), letters of alphabet and capitalization (mainly in nouns). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public spelling was determined by printers. At that point all the letters in ''the alphabet''''' '''are familiar to the present day speaker of English, although their use somewhat differed. Another important point is that the clients of printers usually belonged to the middle class and they rarely knew any Latin; that is why printers ''preferred to publish books in English''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) '''science''': The period was marked by strong lexical borrowing from classical languages (although generally the trend in the middle of the 16th century was against it) in specific fields such as science, medicine or religion. Scientists used Latin to achieve a style both simple and clear and in popular science writing the authors had to make the Latinized vocabulary clear either by offering a gloss, or by coupling a new term with an old, approximately synonymous one.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Scientists mostly used the classical languages (=&amp;gt; borrowings from Latin), not so much for the sake of style but because terms seldom had English equivalents; besides, Latin and Greek terms were more preferable in terms of international discourse. The Royal Society, established in 1662, decided to improve the language; it was influential due to the style of writing which was short and factual.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) '''translation''': The former major act of translation was Wycliffe's vernacular translation of the Bible. Tyndale's translation of the Bible (finished only the New Testament), the most imporatnt translation of the period, differed from the previous one because it was based on the Greek and Hebrew texts, not on their Latin translation. This became influential for all the important translations to follow, such as the King James / Authorized Version (1611).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) '''literature''': It was the period marked by the beginning of the literary boom including Marlowe, Shakespeare, Johnson, Spenser o Milton; the spread of literacy brought along also the discussion on freedom of expression (within certain limits).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is especially important for the language as it marks the process of re-evaluation of sciences, renewed interest in classical writing. The spread of literacy was happening among the middle class who knew little or no Latin.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration literature was very wide ranging, much of the period is a confirmation of earlier traditions, there is also a great deal of emphasis on the theatre and on comedy. There is a steep distinction between the language of religious literature and that of drama. While religious literature remained linguistically rather conservative (Milton - difficult text, meandering syntax, referential opacity), the language of Restauration comedies ridiculed the affected colloquial speech (Congreve - straightforward text, expressing the superficial ideals of the society in London). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration ended antipathy toward foreign ideas with consequences for the language: French ideas, ideals as well as the use of French loan world started to increase bringing the time of politeness and rejection of provincial language. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. '''What subsystems of English (such as e.g. spelling) were most strongly affected by the process of standardisation in this period?''' &lt;br /&gt;
* '''spelling''': regulation of the alphabet. &lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pronunciation: '''Great Vowel Shift. &lt;br /&gt;
* Consonant Inventory: because of the establishment of /ŋ/ and /ʒ/ as phonemes. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Vocabulary:'''  &lt;br /&gt;
** borrowings from French, Dutch and Latin &lt;br /&gt;
** word formation &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Meaning:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** change of semantic field relations &lt;br /&gt;
** broadening/narrowing &lt;br /&gt;
** amelioration/pejoration &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verbs:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** do-periphrasis &lt;br /&gt;
** periphrastic expressions of aspect, voice and tense &lt;br /&gt;
** weakness of inflections &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Noun Phrase''' &lt;br /&gt;
** demostratives: distinction of the distance between the hearer and the speaker (this/that/yon) &lt;br /&gt;
** who = animate; which = all others &lt;br /&gt;
** adjective comparison: more/most &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Word Order:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** affirmative declarative sentences: S-V. &lt;br /&gt;
** interrogatives without do-periphrasis: V-S &lt;br /&gt;
** initial adverb triggers V-S inverstion &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pragmatics:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** you/thou &lt;br /&gt;
** titles &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.  '''The Great Vowel Shift''' &amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 123-154 pp.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* mismatch between spelling and pronunciation: begun in ME, spelling fixed by early XVI century, but the sound kept changing). &lt;br /&gt;
* change of quality of all long vowels (stressed syllables)&lt;br /&gt;
* standardization of the language: synthetic -&amp;gt; analytic &lt;br /&gt;
* most significant of all phonological developments in English&lt;br /&gt;
* change in pronunciaion of verb tense&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;glottopedia.org&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;[[File:350px-GVS.jpg|400px]]&lt;br /&gt;
6. '''What kind of social relationship does the usage of singular you and thou reflect in Elizabethan society?'''&lt;br /&gt;
* used to express power relations&lt;br /&gt;
* ''thou ''becoming an exceptional form&lt;br /&gt;
* ''you ''used in order to show respect (everyone regarded due to his/her social status)&lt;br /&gt;
** children addressing their parent as ''you ''and being addressed as ''thou''&lt;br /&gt;
* Bruti: use of you/thou based on social distance and emotional attitude&lt;br /&gt;
** inferiors addressed as ''thou'', equals as ''you/thou'' and superiors as ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
** anger/contempt or familiarity/intimacy expressed by the use of ''thou'', neutrality/indifference with ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
7. '''Explain the terms:'''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''koineization''' is dialect levelling due to the dialect contact, the process by which a new variety of a language emerges from the mixing, leveling, and simplifying of different dialects, it is also known as dialect mixing. A new variety of a language that develops as a result of koineization is known as a koiné.&lt;br /&gt;
* '''prescriptivism '''is &amp;quot;a view of language which is largely motivated by the move to define what is 'correct' and to condenm what is, consequently, 'incorrect'.&amp;quot;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Chapter resources for ''The History of English: The Introduction ''by Stephan Gramley http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/chapters/05/links-05.pdf&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* '''codification '''is the process of standardasing and developing a norm &lt;br /&gt;
* '''hard words (inkhorn terms)''' — a derogatory way to refer to the new words which have Latin origin, hence their meaning is opaque&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Araslanova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18453</id>
		<title>The Early Modern English Period</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18453"/>
		<updated>2015-04-01T15:26:03Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Araslanova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
1. '''Discuss the interplay between politics and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The period of the Tudors was relatively peaceful which provided the circumstances for economic stability and growth. The centre of market was London and South East where many people migrated (=&amp;gt; dialect contact). The stability of the period also contributed to standardization of the language (compare to the unrest of the 15th century when people did not care about the language that much). The rule of the Stuarts led to the Civil War and, consequently, to Commonwealth: theatres were closed, the whole set of social norms became extremely Puritanic. With the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 the situation radically changed, there was more freedom. Besides, the new king, Charles II, brought French back in fashion (=&amp;gt; loan words). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It was agreed that ''the standard English would be based upon Southern dialects'', particularly upon the speech of the well-bred and well-educated. This led to the split between a highly prescriptive, 'correct', ''Standard English'' (for writing) and the colloquial ''General English'' (a covert norm). Since dialect contact offered sets of linguistic alternatives, the choice made by the speaker turned out to be a ''marker'' of his identity. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Discuss the interplay between religion and the development of English in the period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although Latin still was the language of the Church, the influence of Lutheran Reformation on the Continent could not be ignored. William Tyndale, inspired by the example of Martin Luther, translated the New Testament (his base were Greek and Hebrew texts, not their Latin translation). His translation was influential due to printing and due to the fact that later translations drew on his. From the linguistic point of view, religious texts were quite conservative. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Since Puritanism and Quakerism, flourishing at the time, were reflections of the concerns of the middle and the lower classes respectively, and people of these classes rarely knew Latin, their growing influence meant the growing influence — and usage — of English. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. '''Assess the role on the following fields in the development of English in the period.''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) '''technology''': The printing press caused a high degree of regulation of ortography, influencing spelling (which in fact became more Latin-like, respecting the etymologies of the words), letters of alphabet and capitalization (mainly in nouns). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Public spelling was determined by printers. At that point all the letters in ''the alphabet''''' '''are familiar to the present day speaker of English, although their use somewhat differed. Another important point is that the clients of printers usually belonged to the middle class and they rarely knew any Latin; that is why printers ''preferred to publish books in English''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) '''science''': The period was marked by strong lexical borrowing from classical languages (although generally the trend in the middle of the 16th century was against it) in specific fields such as science, medicine or religion. Scientists used Latin to achieve a style both simple and clear and in popular science writing the authors had to make the Latinized vocabulary clear either by offering a gloss, or by coupling a new term with an old, approximately synonymous one.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Scientists mostly used the classical languages (=&amp;gt; borrowings from Latin), not so much for the sake of style but because terms seldom had English equivalents; besides, Latin and Greek terms were more preferable in terms of international discourse. The Royal Society, established in 1662, decided to improve the language; it was influential due to the style of writing which was short and factual.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) '''translation''': The former major act of translation was Wycliffe's vernacular translation of the Bible. Tyndale's translation of the Bible (finished only the New Testament), the most imporatnt translation of the period, differed from the previous one because it was based on the Greek and Hebrew texts, not on their Latin translation. This became influential for all the important translations to follow, such as the King James / Authorized Version (1611).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d) '''literature''': It was the period marked by the beginning of the literary boom including Marlowe, Shakespeare, Johnson, Spenser o Milton; the spread of literacy brought along also the discussion on freedom of expression (within certain limits).  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is especially important for the language as it marks the process of re-evaluation of sciences, renewed interest in classical writing. The spread of literacy was happening among the middle class who knew little or no Latin.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration literature was very wide ranging, much of the period is a confirmation of earlier traditions, there is also a great deal of emphasis on the theatre and on comedy. There is a steep distinction between the language of religious literature and that of drama. While religious literature remained linguistically rather conservative (Milton - difficult text, meandering syntax, referential opacity), the language of Restauration comedies ridiculed the affected colloquial speech (Congreve - straightforward text, expressing the superficial ideals of the society in London). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Restoration ended antipathy toward foreign ideas with consequences for the language: French ideas, ideals as well as the use of French loan world started to increase bringing the time of politeness and rejection of provincial language. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. '''What subsystems of English (such as e.g. spelling) were most strongly affected by the process of standardisation in this period?''' &lt;br /&gt;
* '''spelling''': regulation of the alphabet. &lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pronunciation: '''Great Vowel Shift. &lt;br /&gt;
* Consonant Inventory: because of the establishment of /ŋ/ and /ʒ/ as phonemes. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Vocabulary:'''  &lt;br /&gt;
** borrowings from French, Dutch and Latin &lt;br /&gt;
** word formation &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Meaning:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** change of semantic field relations &lt;br /&gt;
** broadening/narrowing &lt;br /&gt;
** amelioration/pejoration &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verbs:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** do-periphrasis &lt;br /&gt;
** periphrastic expressions of aspect, voice and tense &lt;br /&gt;
** weakness of inflections &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Noun Phrase''' &lt;br /&gt;
** demostratives: distinction of the distance between the hearer and the speaker (this/that/yon) &lt;br /&gt;
** who = animate; which = all others &lt;br /&gt;
** adjective comparison: more/most &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Word Order:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** affirmative declarative sentences: S-V. &lt;br /&gt;
** interrogatives without do-periphrasis: V-S &lt;br /&gt;
** initial adverb triggers V-S inverstion &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Pragmatics:''' &lt;br /&gt;
** you/thou &lt;br /&gt;
** titles &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.  '''The Great Vowel Shift''' &amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 123-154 pp.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* mismatch between spelling and pronunciation: begun in ME, spelling fixed by early XVI century, but the sound kept changing). &lt;br /&gt;
* change of quality of all long vowels (stressed syllables)&lt;br /&gt;
* standardization of the language: synthetic -&amp;gt; analytic &lt;br /&gt;
* most significant of all phonological developments in English&lt;br /&gt;
* change in pronunciaion of verb tense&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;glottopedia.org&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;[[File:350px-GVS.jpg|400px]]&lt;br /&gt;
6. '''What kind of social relationship does the usage of singular you and thou reflect in Elizabethan society?'''&lt;br /&gt;
* used to express power relations&lt;br /&gt;
* ''thou ''becoming an exceptional form&lt;br /&gt;
* ''you ''used in order to show respect (everyone regarded due to his/her social status)&lt;br /&gt;
** children addressing their parent as ''you ''and being addressed as ''thou''&lt;br /&gt;
* Bruti: use of you/thou based on social distance and emotional attitude&lt;br /&gt;
** inferiors addressed as ''thou'', equals as ''you/thou'' and superiors as ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
** anger/contempt or familiarity/intimacy expressed by the use of ''thou'', neutrality/indifference with ''you''&lt;br /&gt;
7. '''Explain the terms:'''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''koineization''' is dialect levelling due to the dialect contact&lt;br /&gt;
* '''prescriptivism '''is &amp;quot;a view of language which is largely motivated by the move to define what is 'correct' and to condenm what is, consequently, 'incorrect'.&amp;quot;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Chapter resources for ''The History of English: The Introduction ''by Stephan Gramley http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/downloads/chapters/05/links-05.pdf&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* '''codification '''is the process of standardasing and developing a norm &lt;br /&gt;
* '''hard words (inkhorn terms)''' — a derogatory way to refer to the new words which have Latin origin, hence their meaning is opaque&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Araslanova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7076</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7076"/>
		<updated>2014-10-22T17:42:41Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Araslanova: /* The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain; its relation to the four major regional dialects of OE. */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Influence of Celtic/Latin on OE&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic - no record of the original language, predecessor of Scottish Gaelic and Welsh&lt;br /&gt;
** otherwise few traces in English, not much influence on grammar and pronunciation, presumably because of high degree of Romanization of Celtic Britain&lt;br /&gt;
** only few words survived (bannock), most words of Celtic origin are toponyms&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin - some words entered OE through Celtic (ass, cross)&lt;br /&gt;
** greatly advanced proces of Romanization in towns and cities (the wealthy adopted Roman life-style) leading to Celtic-Latin bilingualism, however despite the great importance of Roman culture, Latin have not much contributed to OE, probably because of the civic military disorder during the transitions from Roman to Celtic to Saxon power, also due to the farming culture of Germanic nations as opposed to urban culture of Romans and Britons (the original rural population was subjugated, driven off or ignored)&lt;br /&gt;
** much more importantly, Latin returned later with the introduction of Christianity   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain; its relation to the four major regional dialects of OE&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 21-44&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
Historical background: &lt;br /&gt;
* According to the legends and remaining evidence (including Bede`s ''The Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', and ''An Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') the Celtic king Vortigern invited Germanic reinforcements to protect his people from the Picts, the Scots and Saxon raiders &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* The Germanic soldiers were known for serving in the Roman Army; some of them had already settled in Britain &lt;br /&gt;
* After the invitation the Germans came in large numbers and settled rather than coming merely as administrators and soldiers &lt;br /&gt;
* The Germanic forces did not enslave the Celts, they drove them off &lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic resistance to the Germanic conquest was expressed in the legends of King Arthur (who was late 5th-early 6th century Romano-Celtic leader) &lt;br /&gt;
* The Germans continued to arrive until 6th century &lt;br /&gt;
* Were less interested in urban culture than Romans and Britons -&amp;gt; thus so little was borrowed to the emerging English language from Latin or Celtic&lt;br /&gt;
Initially settled outside the towns and cities; still Germanic settlement patterns follow the rivers and the Roman roads.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Saxons''' settled on the south coast, in Sussex, Wessex, north of the Thames in Middlesex and Essex; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Angles''' settled on the east coast, in the Midlands up to Northumbria and Southern Scotland; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Jutes''' settled in Kent, parts of Hampshire, the Isle of Wight; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Frisians''' are not associated with any particular place. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is unlikely that there was major linguistic difference, all the newcomers were speakers of '''“North Sea Germanic”'''; there were so many similarities that the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxon was uniformly called ''Englisc''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later a series of small kingdoms emerged in which the social organization was created by an extended family or a clan (with hereditary nobles – ''eorls ''– and simple freemen – ''ceorls''). A lot of kingdoms boundaries corresponded to the borders of bishoprics. Further stability was achieved by the creation of British-Saxon people. Later the combinations of smaller units led to a set of '''seven major kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex''' – this is also known as '''the Heptarchy'''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The boundaries of these kingdoms more of less '''coincide with the dialects traditionally postulated for OE'''. Diversity in OE was partly countered in the process of '''standardization '''which eventually took place in OE. Much of variety was regional and was grounded on the '''four major regional dialects:''' &lt;br /&gt;
* Northumbrian and  &lt;br /&gt;
* Mercian  –&amp;gt; sometimes grouped together as Anglian &lt;br /&gt;
* Kentish &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* West Saxon&lt;br /&gt;
The majority of extant texts from the OE period are in the West Saxon, but Northumbria was especially important in the seventh and eighth century. Consequently, some texts existed in several versions (ex. “Caedmon`s Hymn”).The major differences are to be found in  &lt;br /&gt;
* vowels: unlike the northern ones, the West Saxon dialect underwent a process of '''diphthongization '''&lt;br /&gt;
* spelling conventions &lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin script adapted for use with English is adopted&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Quirk, R. and C.L. Wrenn (1957) An Old English Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. Slocum, J. and W.P. Lehmann (2009, 2010) &amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive/imperative) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Limitations in the Literature from Old English Period&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* little material available before 700 &lt;br /&gt;
* limited fields of writing: mostly legal and religious texts &lt;br /&gt;
* diversity of form and content&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Araslanova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7075</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7075"/>
		<updated>2014-10-22T17:35:53Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Araslanova: the Anglo-Saxon settlement&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Influence of Celtic/Latin on OE&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic - no record of the original language, predecessor of Scottish Gaelic and Welsh&lt;br /&gt;
** otherwise few traces in English, not much influence on grammar and pronunciation, presumably because of high degree of Romanization of Celtic Britain&lt;br /&gt;
** only few words survived (bannock), most words of Celtic origin are toponyms&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin - some words entered OE through Celtic (ass, cross)&lt;br /&gt;
** greatly advanced proces of Romanization in towns and cities (the wealthy adopted Roman life-style) leading to Celtic-Latin bilingualism, however despite the great importance of Roman culture, Latin have not much contributed to OE, probably because of the civic military disorder during the transitions from Roman to Celtic to Saxon power, also due to the farming culture of Germanic nations as opposed to urban culture of Romans and Britons (the original rural population was subjugated, driven off or ignored)&lt;br /&gt;
** much more importantly, Latin returned later with the introduction of Christianity   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain; its relation to the four major regional dialects of OE. ==&lt;br /&gt;
Historical background: &lt;br /&gt;
* According to the legends and remaining evidence (including Bede`s ''The Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', and ''An Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') the Celtic king Vortigern invited Germanic reinforcements to protect his people from the Picts, the Scots and Saxon raiders &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* The Germanic soldiers were known for serving in the Roman Army; some of them had already settled in Britain &lt;br /&gt;
* After the invitation the Germans came in large numbers and settled rather than coming merely as administrators and soldiers &lt;br /&gt;
* The Germanic forces did not enslave the Celts, they drove them off &lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic resistance to the Germanic conquest was expressed in the legends of King Arthur (who was late 5th-early 6th century Romano-Celtic leader) &lt;br /&gt;
* The Germans continued to arrive until 6th century &lt;br /&gt;
* Were less interested in urban culture than Romans and Britons -&amp;gt; thus so little was borrowed to the emerging English language from Latin or Celtic&lt;br /&gt;
Initially settled outside the towns and cities; still Germanic settlement patterns follow the rivers and the Roman roads.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Saxons''' settled on the south coast, in Sussex, Wessex, north of the Thames in Middlesex and Essex; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Angles''' settled on the east coast, in the Midlands up to Northumbria and Southern Scotland; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Jutes''' settled in Kent, parts of Hampshire, the Isle of Wight; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Frisians''' are not associated with any particular place. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is unlikely that there was major linguistic difference, all the newcomers were speakers of '''“North Sea Germanic”'''; there were so many similarities that the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxon was uniformly called ''Englisc''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Later a series of small kingdoms emerged in which the social organization was created by an extended family or a clan (with hereditary nobles – ''eorls ''– and simple freemen – ''ceorls''). A lot of kingdoms boundaries corresponded to the borders of bishoprics. Further stability was achieved by the creation of British-Saxon people. Later the combinations of smaller units led to a set of '''seven major kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex''' – this is also known as '''the Heptarchy'''. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The boundaries of these kingdoms more of less '''coincide with the dialects traditionally postulated for OE'''. Diversity in OE was partly countered in the process of '''standardization '''which eventually took place in OE. Much of variety was regional and was grounded on the '''four major regional dialects:''' &lt;br /&gt;
* Northumbrian and  &lt;br /&gt;
* Mercian  –&amp;gt; sometimes grouped together as Anglian &lt;br /&gt;
* Kentish &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* West Saxon&lt;br /&gt;
The majority of extant texts from the OE period are in the West Saxon, but Northumbria was especially important in the seventh and eighth century. Consequently, some texts existed in several versions (ex. “Caedmon`s Hymn”).The major differences are to be found in  &lt;br /&gt;
* vowels: unlike the northern ones, the West Saxon dialect underwent a process of '''diphthongization '''&lt;br /&gt;
* spelling conventions &lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin script adapted for use with English is adopted&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Quirk, R. and C.L. Wrenn (1957) An Old English Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. Slocum, J. and W.P. Lehmann (2009, 2010) &amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive/imperative) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Limitations in the Literature from Old English Period&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* little material available before 700 &lt;br /&gt;
* limited fields of writing: mostly legal and religious texts &lt;br /&gt;
* diversity of form and content&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Araslanova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
</feed>