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	<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Anna.Cingrosova</id>
	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
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	<updated>2026-05-11T20:20:45Z</updated>
	<subtitle>Příspěvky uživatele</subtitle>
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	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=English_in_Great_Britain_since_1700&amp;diff=19005</id>
		<title>English in Great Britain since 1700</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=English_in_Great_Britain_since_1700&amp;diff=19005"/>
		<updated>2015-04-22T13:54:49Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Cingrosova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;=== 1. 	Explain the rise of Standard English pronunciation. What was its linguistic base and the vehicle of its introduction? What were the socio-historical circumstances?  ===&lt;br /&gt;
- emerged in the mid-nineteenth century from the language of the boys at the elite private boarding schools of England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the accent connected with the power and prestige of the speakers = the upper-class people =&amp;gt; therefore Standart English pronunciation associated with competence and status &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- thanks to its development and prominent position, it is often presented as reference accent = something which is associated with people from a fairly wide region and with people of high social class, seemingly accentless, = Received Pronunciation, also known as BBC English (as it was used in the radio-broadcasting from its beginnings in the 1920s) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- today modified and graudally displaced by Estuary English – London regional RP, a koineized form of English developing in London and its vicinity (the Thames Estuary and the lower Thames valley – e.g. Essex, northern Kent) - characterized by a mixture of features drawn from middle-class and working-class speech, spreading to other part of the Great Britain as well&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 2.	Comment on the history of English spelling reforms. What and how were they trying to accomplish. What were their results ===&lt;br /&gt;
 - Spelling conventions of ModE different from EModE&lt;br /&gt;
 - The accepted changes were the following:&lt;br /&gt;
             - Lower case letters for all but proper nouns, adjectives and verbs ''(Britain, Welsh, Anglicize'')&lt;br /&gt;
             - The “long” &amp;lt;ɾ&amp;gt; as in “ɾpeech” disappeared&lt;br /&gt;
             - The &amp;lt;k&amp;gt; at the ends of words like Teutonick disappeared too&lt;br /&gt;
 - Variety of movements which wanted to change English ortography:&lt;br /&gt;
             - wanted the one-to-one relationship between phoneme and letters in the alphabet&lt;br /&gt;
             - alphabetic principle was more or less maintained (except for Pitman shorthand and Lodwick's Universal Alphabet)&lt;br /&gt;
 - &amp;quot;New Spelling&amp;quot; by Simplified Spelling Society of Great Britain:&lt;br /&gt;
             - &amp;lt;k&amp;gt;  for /k/ sounds in all instances --&amp;gt; ''kanot, konsekraet, detrakt''&lt;br /&gt;
             - /ð/ is spelled as &amp;lt;dh&amp;gt; as in ''dhis'' &lt;br /&gt;
             - final &amp;lt;e&amp;gt; is dropped in words such as ''sens''&lt;br /&gt;
 - StE spelling gives preference to etymological spellings --&amp;gt; causes inter-linguistic intelligibility&lt;br /&gt;
 - Scots spelling is similar to StE spelling but there are some Scottish conventions such as &amp;lt;ui&amp;gt; for fronted /(j)y/&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 3.  What are the foundations of English codification? Contrast this with the situation of a different language. ===&lt;br /&gt;
* Why? Because of a desire to fix the language in its ideal state&lt;br /&gt;
* In 17th and 18th century, standard English was a part of nationalism which, with increasing levels of education, got into actual use&lt;br /&gt;
* Codification was largely a prescriptivist project to &amp;quot;purify the language&amp;quot; affecting areas of pronunciation, grammar, spelling and vocabulary&lt;br /&gt;
* It could be viewed as the elite imposing their language (and manners, which was believed to be connected) on others&lt;br /&gt;
* The expectation of everyone abiding to the standard caused two problems: the need to extend English to users of other languages (Welsh) and the misapprehension that standard English correlates with intelligence and, which was partially true, with higher education&lt;br /&gt;
* The prescribing of norm becomes more relevant as the language becomes more complex and has more aspirants to use its full potential&lt;br /&gt;
* Desire to know the standard created a tradition of books of grammar and orthoepy and dictionaries, such as Samuel Johnson's &amp;quot;A Dictionary of English Language&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;
* The dictionary used analogy and experience from renowned authors' work, nor as old as Chaucer, nor too recent&lt;br /&gt;
* The main concerns in forming the standard were for example the new terms in language due to the influence of colonies and immigrants, class, gender, ethnicity, age and region all becoming important factors to language which had to be contained, grammaticalization of certain areas&lt;br /&gt;
* At first there was a desire to make an academy (like it was the case of French) to take care of the language, but in the end the English relied on works of individual grammarians setting the standards&lt;br /&gt;
* That made the language at first open to regionalisms because of bias but that was gone by the end of 17th century&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Define the terms substrate and superstrate. How do they cooperate and contribute to linguistic change?'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Substratum = a language that influences but is replaced by a second language&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Superstratum = the language that succeeds the preceding (substrated) language•&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''5. What are the major dialects of Late Modern English in Britain? Exemplify some of the differences.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1. THE NORTH Northumberland, Druham, Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, Yorkshire, north of Humber and Mersey Rivers)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	The Northern Subject Rule = &amp;quot;the verbal –s suffix can be used with a plural noun subject as well as with demonstrative pronoun subjects, but not with a personal pronoun…” (Filippula 2004: 88)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Northern Vernacular Pronoun Use = 2nd person sg “tha” (no special verb inflection – no “-st”) x “thee”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Article – definite article is more widely used than in StE and often reduced&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Modals – (comparable to Scotland) – may, shall, ought are rare; must is epistemic only; modal-like need, want are followed by past participle&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	NORTH x SOUTH: The FOOT-STRUT split (South + parts of Ireland) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. SCOTLAND – The Lowlands of Scotland&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Morphology: irregular plural nouns, missing distinction between 2nd person singular and plural pronouns; number in nouns is unmarked after numerals; plural subject nouns take “is” and “was” (Northern Subject Rule)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Syntax: Negation by “no” “not” or “nae”; Tense and aspect (similar to North); Conditionals; Reflexives used in non-reflexive contexts; Modal verbs – almost no use of “shall” and “ought”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Pronunciation: phonemes /hw/ and /x/; consonant clusters (knee, write), /u:/ in words like “aboot” “hoose”; front /e:/ in “hame” (home) or “bane” (bone)•	Vocabulary&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. IRELAND&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Standard Irish English: loan words from Gaelic (clan, whiskey), idioms and expressions; pronunciation close to RP&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Vernacular: Tense, aspect, verb &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''6. Sum up the grammatical developments in Standard English from 1700.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Completion of TMA (tense-modality-aspect) – eg. Extension progressive → passive&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Expansion of modal auxiliaries → reduction of subjunctive&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Extended restriction of modals → renewed modal system (grammaticalization, lexicalization)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Cingrosova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_non-standard_period&amp;diff=12536</id>
		<title>Middle English: the non-standard period</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_non-standard_period&amp;diff=12536"/>
		<updated>2014-12-16T16:30:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Anna.Cingrosova: /* 1. When did most French borrowings enter English and why? Why is the dating of the Old Norse borrowing relatively late? */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	What were the specific roles of English and French in the Early ME society?'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Context: 1066 Battle of Hastings → William the Conqueror  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
→ English Nobles replaced by Normans- the leaders= most influential sector of society,the higer classes&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Most of the Church leaders French as well &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- but mass of the inhabitants of England= English-speaking peasants  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
French- language of upper class for more than 200 years &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Marked class more than national identity &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- French used in writing conventions &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Bilingualism (French landowners in isolated areas, Engl. /Fr. intermarriages among lesser nobility)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
→ French used on the top and English on the bottom of the social scale&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
--&amp;gt; Bilingualism (landowners in rural areas)&lt;br /&gt;
--&amp;gt; large-scale borrowing from French&lt;br /&gt;
--&amp;gt; less influence on word order and inflection, more on vocabulary &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. What were the major factors for re-emergence of English in the Early ME period?'''&lt;br /&gt;
* 1234 - bishop protest at Winchester = dismissal of foreigners&lt;br /&gt;
** dind't last long, soon returned but there were tensions&lt;br /&gt;
** 1258 - Henry III - Provisions of Oxford&lt;br /&gt;
*** first proclamation since the Norman Conquest issued in French, Latin as well as English&lt;br /&gt;
*** meant to promote power-sharing between the barons and the king (recognition of parliament)&lt;br /&gt;
*** not accepted by the king = Barons' War (1258-1265)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Edward I&lt;br /&gt;
** most office-holders English&lt;br /&gt;
** changes in attitude towards English&lt;br /&gt;
*** knowledge of English = mark of an Englishman&lt;br /&gt;
*** English common language in all parts of the population (due to the merge of Norman French with the native population)&lt;br /&gt;
*** ''Of Arthur and of Merlin'' (before 1325) (translated): But every Englishman knows English./ Many a noble I have seen/ Who could not speak French.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* consequences&lt;br /&gt;
** decline of French - there were attempts to hold this decline&lt;br /&gt;
*** University of Oxford forced students to learn both English and French&lt;br /&gt;
*** Canterbury and Westminster novices forbidden to use English&lt;br /&gt;
*** French a foreign language&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* English as a written language, the use of English in courts and Parliament established in the middle of the 14th century&lt;br /&gt;
* 15th century - English in private and public use; French still present in the Court and upper class&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3.Explain the origin of the phonemic difference in voicing of English fricatives.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-Lexical borrowing from French --&amp;gt; the evolution of new&lt;br /&gt;
phoneme;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-Contact with and borrowing of words with the phonotactic features of French led to contrasts between initial voiced and voiceless fricatives;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-  The adoption of French loans with /v/ spelt ‹u ~ v› begins ca. 1200-50 and accelerates dramatically ca. 1300 (voice-valūe);&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Examples:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Initial-fricative-voicing is a process that occurs in the West Country where the fricatives /s/, /f/, /θ/, /ʃ/ and /h/ are voiced to [z], [v], [ð], [ʒ]l. Initial /v/ from French --&amp;gt; meaning distinctions between words&lt;br /&gt;
with /f/ and those with /v/ (ModE fon-van;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- /z/ was phonemicised thanks to the frequent occurrence of medial /-s-/ contrasting with /-z-/in OF; the effect of learned borrowings with initial /z-/ was negligible. The degemination of ME[-ss-] probably played a secondary role.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- /ð/ was phonemicised slowly and its distribution remains defective even in ModE. The medialcontrast between. The /ð/ of pronouns and conjunctions was aprosodically conditioned allophone. /ð/ owes its phonemic status mostly to analogical restoration (bath -bathe)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-Function words (articles) --&amp;gt; only weakly stressed while lexical words carried stress;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Comment on the loss of /w/ and /h/ in the early ME period.'''&lt;br /&gt;
* postconsonantal '''/w/''' disappeared before backround vowels, e.g. it disappeared in combinations such as /sw-/, which lead to ''so'' (as opposed to ''swā'') or ''sword'' /sɔːd/ ( as opposed to ''sweord''). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* the loss of '''/h/''', also known as h dropping, appeared in consonant clusters such as /hr-/, /hn-/ and /hl/ and before consonants as in (''rig'''ht'''''), but it has been mostly retained before vowels. Dropping pre-vocalic /h/ is seen as violating the norms of good English (typical in Cockney ''´ous'' instead of ''house''). ! Initial prevocalic /h/ was not pronounced (and thus was ommited from writing) in loan woards (''houre x oure'' - PDE ''hour''). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''5. Explain the principal mechanisms of short vowel lengthening and long vowel shortening in Middle English.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- In late OE, some long vowels shortened in closed syllables: e.g. OE cēp-te -&amp;gt; ME kĕpte&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-Around the thirteenth century, some short vowels lengthened in open syllables: e.g. OE nŏ-su -&amp;gt; ME nōse&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Changes in the vowel system in the ME period:&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* V + /l, r, n, m/ + voiced consonant → vowel lengthening / diphthongization&lt;br /&gt;
** ''cild'' “child” – original /i/ → /iː/ (later → /aı/)&lt;br /&gt;
- but did not occur if a third consonant followed ''cildru ''“children” - /i/ &lt;br /&gt;
* ē before double consonants → shortened&lt;br /&gt;
**If they were in stressed closed syllables before a ‘consonant group’&lt;br /&gt;
e.g. groups that resulted from compounding: scēaphirde&lt;br /&gt;
e.g. doubled consonants: næ:ddre, læ:dde&lt;br /&gt;
*** ''mētan'' – ''mētte ''→ “meet” – “met” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Open syllable lengthening - general lengthening of vowels in open syllables (especially in the South)&lt;br /&gt;
** /a/ as in ''faren'' “fare” → /ɑː/ in open syllables&lt;br /&gt;
** /ɛ/ as in ''spere'' “spear” → /ɛː/ in open syllables&lt;br /&gt;
** /ɔ/ as in'' boren'' “borne” → /ɔː/ in open syllables&lt;br /&gt;
consequence – today phonologically short vowels - /ɪ, e, æ, ɒ, ʊ, ʌ/ do not occur in open syllables&lt;br /&gt;
* More and more unstressed vowels – realized as ''schwa ''or lost in final position&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''------------------late OE (Wessex)-------------------------------------early 14th century (East)''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''------------------front---rounded---back---diphthongs--------------front---back---diphthongs''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
high-------------i/iː------y/yː---------u/uː---------------------------------i/iː-----u/uː------iu--(ui) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
high-mid-------e/eː------------------o/oː------eo/eːo------------------e/eː----o/oː------ɛu--ɔi &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
low-mid---------------------------------------------------------------------ɛː-------ɔː------------ɔu &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
low-------------æ/æː-----------------ɑ/ɑː-----æɑ/æːɑ-----------------æ/æː--------------ai--au&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
--&amp;gt; By the end of the ME period,&lt;br /&gt;
*Closed syllables are associated with short vowels&lt;br /&gt;
tal-ly remains short&lt;br /&gt;
cēp-te becomes short&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Open syllables are associated with long vowels&lt;br /&gt;
ta-lu becomes long&lt;br /&gt;
cē-pan remains long&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
'''6. Sum up the main changes to English orthography in the Early ME period and explain their origins. ''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* the first orthographic system connected with West Saxon was still used but grew outdated &lt;br /&gt;
* new conventions began to shift → French influence &lt;br /&gt;
* even though there were general effects of the changes no standard emerged in the early ME  &lt;br /&gt;
* Changes: &lt;br /&gt;
** Non-Latin letters in disuse o&lt;br /&gt;
*** &amp;lt;ʒ&amp;gt; → &amp;lt;g&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;i&amp;gt; &amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*** &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;ð&amp;gt; replaced by &amp;lt;th&amp;gt; &amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
*** &amp;lt;ae&amp;gt; interchanged with &amp;lt;a&amp;gt; or &amp;lt;e&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
**  &amp;lt;u; uu; w&amp;gt; are now used instead of Wynn &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; &amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** &amp;lt;y&amp;gt; used as a consonant for &amp;lt;j&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
**  &amp;lt;ʒ&amp;gt; fully retired&lt;br /&gt;
** &amp;lt;k&amp;gt; began to be used especially where &amp;lt;c&amp;gt; + &amp;lt;e; i&amp;gt; would lead to misinterpreation as &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;s&amp;gt; instead of &amp;lt;k&amp;gt; &amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** OE grapheme combinantion &amp;lt;hw&amp;gt; →&amp;lt;wh&amp;gt; → thanks to the influence which used &amp;lt;h&amp;gt; as a diacritic in combinations such as -th, -ch etc. &lt;br /&gt;
** in North and East Anglia &amp;lt;qu; u&amp;gt; and east Midlands &amp;lt;w&amp;gt; were also used for &amp;lt;hw&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** &amp;lt;c&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;sc&amp;gt; were replaced by French &amp;lt;ch&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;sch&amp;gt;  &lt;br /&gt;
* Changes in vowels: &lt;br /&gt;
** more challenging because of the great variety of pronunciations &lt;br /&gt;
** OE /y/ → &amp;lt;e&amp;gt; in Southeast BUT! in Soutwest rounding was reatained → the French&amp;lt;u; ui; uy&amp;gt; occured &lt;br /&gt;
** high back rounded /uː/ was spelled as &amp;lt;ou&amp;gt; in French fashion &lt;br /&gt;
** OE raising of /a/ led to the use of &amp;lt;o&amp;gt; or &amp;lt;oo&amp;gt;  &lt;br /&gt;
* Ormulum o&lt;br /&gt;
** 12th century East Midlands work; poetry; it wasn't praised because of its quality (used 15 beats iambic pentameter and it didn't rhyme) provides evidence of Old Norse in ME; includes English-Danish couplets &lt;br /&gt;
** the use of spelling indicates the author's pronunciation : &lt;br /&gt;
*** short and long vowels are differentiated here &lt;br /&gt;
*** short vowels - followed by double consonant-letters:follc &lt;br /&gt;
*** long vowels - followed by only one consonants letters:god &lt;br /&gt;
*** such differentiation also indicates that this OE concept was lost&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== 1. When did most French borrowings enter English and why? Why is the dating of the Old Norse borrowing relatively late? ====&lt;br /&gt;
* Right after the Norman Conquest (1066-1204): nobility was French-speaking, so the vocabulary they influenced was within limited domains (law, finance …)  &lt;br /&gt;
* Most borrowings occured after 1204, when Normandy was lost. By that time, bilingualism was well developed.&lt;br /&gt;
* After 1204, the upper class moved to the use of English, and it was used in more and more domains (bilingualism declined) → they carried with them the French words of daily life. (more French words for terms for finance, property, household, law, religion, hunting, medicine...)  &lt;br /&gt;
* It is chiefly nouns which were adopted, but fairly many verbs and adjectives and a few other forms were as well. Forty percent of all French borrowings first show up in writing between 1250 and 1400. All in all over 10,000 words were borrowed from French in the ME period&lt;br /&gt;
* Many of the borrowings from Old Norse took place earlier but only now showed up in the written language.&lt;br /&gt;
'''Changes in the ME verbal system'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
reduction in the number of strong verbs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
eg. ''helpan – healp – hulpon – holpen'' became ''help - helped – helped''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a unitary vowel instead of a vowel of the past singular and the past plural&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the progressive is low in use-	the OE auxiliary of the perfect tense ben disappears and hauen/habban stays&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the need of more emphatic expressions introduces a higher use of modals and subjunctive&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
ME prefers naht alone to express negation&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Passives: dative noun in subject (nominative) position&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Anna.Cingrosova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
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