<?xml version="1.0"?>
<feed xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" xml:lang="cs">
	<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Diana.Ralisova</id>
	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
	<link rel="self" type="application/atom+xml" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Diana.Ralisova"/>
	<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/wiki/Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:P%C5%99%C3%ADsp%C4%9Bvky/Diana.Ralisova"/>
	<updated>2026-05-12T00:40:31Z</updated>
	<subtitle>Příspěvky uživatele</subtitle>
	<generator>MediaWiki 1.33.0</generator>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=6._The_Words_and_Sounds_of_Old_English&amp;diff=39513</id>
		<title>6. The Words and Sounds of Old English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=6._The_Words_and_Sounds_of_Old_English&amp;diff=39513"/>
		<updated>2016-11-19T13:33:38Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Diana.Ralisova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;1.	Explain why the structural similarity of OE and ON could hasten the reduction and loss of inflectional endings.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Vikings from modern-day Norway and Denmark began to raid parts of Britain from the late 8th century onward. In 865, however, a major invasion was launched by what the Anglo-Saxons called the Great Heathen Army, which eventually brought large parts of northern and eastern England (the Danelaw) under Scandinavian control. Most of these areas were retaken by the English under Edward the Elder in the early 10th century, although York and Northumbria were not permanently regained until the death of Eric Bloodaxe in 954. Scandinavian raids resumed in the late 10th century during the reign of Æthelred the Unready, and Sweyn Forkbeard eventually succeeded in briefly being declared king of England in 1013, followed by the longer reign of his son Cnut from 1016 to 1035, and Cnut's sons Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut until 1042.The Scandinavians, or Norsemen, spoke dialects of a North Germanic language known as Old Norse. The Anglo-Saxons and the Scandinavians thus spoke related languages from different branches (West and North) of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammatical systems were more divergent. Probably significant numbers of Old Norse speakers settled in the Danelaw during the period of Scandinavian control. Many place-names in those areas are of Scandinavian provenance (those ending in -by, for example); it is believed that the settlers often established new communities in places that had not previously been developed by the Anglo-Saxons. The extensive contact between Old English and Old Norse speakers, including the possibility of intermarriage that resulted from the acceptance of Christianity by the Danes in 878, undoubtedly influenced the varieties of those languages spoken in the areas of contact. Some scholars even believe that Old English and Old Norse underwent a kind of fusion, and that the resulting English language might be described as a mixed language or creole. When Danish rule ended, and particularly after the Norman Conquest, the status of the minority Norse language presumably declined relative to that of English, and its remaining speakers assimilated to English in a process involving language shift and language death. The widespread bilingualism that must have existed during this process possibly contributed to the rate of borrowings from Norse into English.Therefore, to conclude, the two languages were structurally simillar and were in  close contact in the area of Danelaw, OE had a minor status in the area where ON was spoken. Therefore, the inflections disappeared more extensively and earlier in the North. If we look at comparison of some words in OE and in ON, we can see that the ON ones don’t have the inflectional endings: due to the narrow contact between ON and OE, due to the fact that the words were very similar and people might confuse them sometimes, the unnecessary endings started disappearing:Ex. beran (to bear, OE) x bera (ON), bítan (to bite, OE) x bíta (ON), habban (to have, OE) x hafa (ON), draegeth (pulls, OE) x dregr (ON)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''3. Summarize the basic stages of borrowings from Latin.''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	'''Before 449 CE'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Took place when the Germanic tribes came into contact with Latin speakers, e.g. Roman merchants, on the continent of Europe (before 449 CE). Approximately 200 words entered the language at this time&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Romans – a higher standard of living, more refinements than the Germanic people, the contact btw them was intimate&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	The loan words generally refer to commonplace concrete objects; are familiar rather than formal&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	The borrowings were popular and oral rather than learned and written&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	The words borrowed in this period appear in Old High German &amp;amp; Old English &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	These loan words were later subject to all sound changes in OE and OhG – because the words underwent these changes =&amp;gt; they are dated as early borrowings&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some of the borrowed vocabulary:&lt;br /&gt;
Plante “plant” (&amp;lt; Lat. planta), cese ‘cheese’ (&amp;lt; Lat. cciseus), belt ‘belt’ (&amp;lt; Lat. balteus), camp ‘camp’ (&amp;lt; Lat. campus), mynster ‘minster’ (&amp;lt; Lat. monasterium)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	'''The Celtic period'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	may have been borrowed from Latin by the British Celts and then borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons from the Celts, but it is also possible that Celtic and Old English took the words independently from Latin&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some examples:&lt;br /&gt;
port ‘harbor, gate, town’ (&amp;lt; Lat. portus), munt ‘mountain’ (&amp;lt; Lat. montus), and torr ‘tower, rock’ (&amp;lt; Lat. turris). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3)	'''The Christian period'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Followed Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons in 597 CE by Roman missionaries&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin the language of the Church -&amp;gt; used in manuscripts and artifacts in Anglo-Saxon England&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Usually learned borrowings concerning religion and scholarship (the Church largely responsible for literacy, learning)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Fully assimilated, came to be inflected as if they were OE words and combined with elements of native origin (like all loan words)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Some examples:&lt;br /&gt;
accent ‘accent’ (&amp;lt; Lat. accentus) capitol(a) ‘chapter’ (&amp;lt; Lat. capitolum) notere ‘notary’ (&amp;lt; Lat. notarius) tempel ‘temple’ (&amp;lt; Lat. templum) organe ‘organ’ (&amp;lt; Lat. origanum) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The borrowings of this period end to fall into two groups&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a)	The early; entering by the time of King Alfred&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b)	The later; entering at the time of the Benedectine Reform (late 10th century)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''4. Present an overview of ON influence on OE vocabulary.''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Approximately 1,000 words of Scandinavian origin entered the standard language, and even more found their way into local dialects &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	The two languages very similar structurally and lexically&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	ON loan words don’t appear in significant numbers until Middle English; spread gradually from northern -&amp;gt; southern ME English &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Close relation between N and W Germanic dialects: difficulties with determining the origin of a word (native OE or a ON borrowing) – phonological features can sometimes help&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
What could happen with a borrowed ON word = &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Complete replacement of the OE word (ON taka (ModE take) replacing OE niman)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Both words retained, one restricted to the northern dialect (ON kirkja giving the Scottish form kirk in contrast to standard ModE church.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Both words retained in the standard dialect, usually some semantic differentiation (ON skirt and native shirt)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	An OE word could be retained but acquire the meaning of the ON cognate = semantic loan (with: the OE word wið ‘against’ came to have the meaning of the ON word við, which meant ‘in conjunction, company with’, while the OE word meaning the latter, mid, was lost. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Examples of ON loan words&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Appr. 1500 place names in north. England ( –by, -beck, -dale, -thorp)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Personal names ending in –son and the Danish –sen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most words name everyday objects and actions; some specialized domains – ships, law, warfare (an obvious area of expertise for the Scandinavians)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Very common verbs get (&amp;lt; ON geta), give (&amp;lt; ON gefa), and call (&amp;lt; ON kalla cf. OE ceallian).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Third-person plural pronouns they, their, and them (to replace the native forms hi, hire, and him)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	basic words as the pronouns both (&amp;lt; ON bafiir) and same (&amp;lt; ON samr), the preposition fro (&amp;lt; ON fra), the conjunction though (&amp;lt; ON po), the strong verb run (&amp;lt; ON renna), and the ordinal number hundredth (&amp;lt; ON hundraS)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	plural form are (of be)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''5. Give a list of differences between OE and PDE alphabet.''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
OE alphabet&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	the adoption of an ortographic system = one of the most important effects of Christianization&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	the Anglo-Saxons probably acquired the Latin alphabet from Irish missionaries&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Irish changes: &lt;br /&gt;
-	     adition of the letter eth (lowercase ð and uppercase Ð) representing th&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     a special form of the letter g (ʒ) = yogh &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Anglo-Saxons addition from runes :&lt;br /&gt;
-	     thorn (þ Þ) also representing th &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     wynn (Ƿ ƿ) represents w&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	the Tironian note ⟨⁊⟩ - means and, &amp;amp;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
PDE alphabet&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	more letters (26) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	a strictly Latin alphabet&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''6. Describe the OE consonant / vowel system.''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CONSONANTS'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	OE: a nearly phonemic writing system: it uses each alphabetic symbol to stand for a single distinct sound (or phoneme), each letter pronounced, no silent letters, no separate symbols representing the allophones, there may be more than 1 predictable pronunciation for each letter&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	double consonants&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Voiceless stops&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	p [p] – pipe “pipe”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	t [t] – túr “tower”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	c [k] – candel “candle”, [č] cinn “chin” (palatalization, in the presence of a front vowel)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	cw [kw] – cwén “woman”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Voiced stops&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	b [b] – bedd “bed”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	d [d] – dol “stupid”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	ʒ - [g] – gold “gold”, [j] gíet “yet”, [ɣ] lagu “law”, slóg “struck” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     [g] before back vowels, before consonants, when doubled and in the sequence ng&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     also palatalization: when it moves forward becomes the palatal glide [j] (in the context of a front vowel – before, after, between front vowels and after front vowels at the end of a syllable)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     all other circumstances (after/btw back vowels or r and l) - [ɣ]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Fricatives&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	s [s] – hús “house”, [z] wíse “wise”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	f [f] – fisc “fish”, [v] – ofer “over”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	ð or þ -  [θ] – þæt “that”, [ð] – hoðma “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	h  -  [h] hord “hoard”, [ç] – mihtig “might”, [x] mearh “horse”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     [h] beginning of a word before a vowel (already in Germanic)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     [x] elsewhere except:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     [ç] after a front vowel (palatalization)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Nasals and approximants&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	n [n] – nytt “use”, [ŋ] hring “ring” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     [ŋ] occurs only before [g], [k]; ng always [ŋg], never just [ŋ] like in ModE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	     [n] elsewhere&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	m [m] mund “palm”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	l [l] meolc “milk”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	r [r] sár “sore”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	ʒ [j] – geoc “yoke”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	ƿ [w] – winnan “win”&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Also a number of consonant clusters &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	All letters pronounced! &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''VOWELS'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	The Germanic vowel system changed very little in OE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Both long and short vowels (phonemic – distinguish meaning) (a long vowel = a monophtong, not a diphthong!) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	OE long vowels – both tense and long  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Vowel length usually not indicated in manuscripts &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	A change from Germanic: ɑ split into two sounds: æ and ɑ (ɑ before back vowels, nasals, before w, æ elsewhere); ā and ai merging into ā&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	New vowels in OE (not Germanic): letters: ȳ, y, ea, eo &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''7. Explain the terms: hybrid form, loan translation, loan rendition, loan creation, semantic loan, amalgamated compound, ligature, phonemic writing system, doublets''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	hybrid form - a complex word form which consists of a native part and a borrowed part - OE, preosthad ‘priesthood’, bisceopsetl ‘bishopric’ – 1st half Latin, 2nd half OE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	loan translation/calque - a native word formation using the model of the form and mean ing of a (morphologically complex and semantically transparent) foreign word. It stands in contrast to borrowing. The form and meaning of a foreign word becomes a model for the native construction. E.g. OE priness ‘threeness’ for for Lat. trinity &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	loan rendition – a similar group of words, less exact than loan translations, the original is only partially translated or provides just a part of the new word (e.g. sabbatam “rest” &amp;gt; restedœg ‘rest day') &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	loan creation - take the idea from a foreign word but contain no element that directly corresponds (e.g. baptiszare &amp;gt;fulwian ‘to consecrate fully’)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	semantic loan - an OE word could be retained but acquire the meaning of the ON cognate (The retention of the native form of a word but with the adoption of a meaning borrowed from the cognate word in a related language. )&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	amalgamated compound – compounds that cease to be recognized as such, either because the two parts fuse together or because one part has been lost as an independent word&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	ligature - two letters linked together as one&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	phonemic writing system - uses each alphabetic symbol to stand for a single distinct sound (or phoneme)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	doublets - words which derive from the same original word (in PIE) but which arrive in a language via different routes of transmission (OE from, ON fro; OE no, ON nay; OE shatter, ON scatter)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Diana.Ralisova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38572</id>
		<title>1. Introduction: Welcome to HEL</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38572"/>
		<updated>2016-10-20T20:44:09Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Diana.Ralisova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;1. Important concepts and terms to explain: synchrony and diachrony; continuity, change and variation (divided usage); English historical linguistics, general linguistics, philology; comparison as the principal method; chronology: Old English (c. 700–1100), Middle English (1100– 1500), Early Modern English (1500–1700), Late Modern English (1700–1900), Present-Day English (PDE; 1900– ); biblical translation: Wycliffite; Authorised Version.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''SYNCHRONY AND DIACHRONY '''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Diachrony''': is the change in the meaning of words over time. is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary meaning of words. A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Synchrony: '''A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. That is how languages compare to each other at any given point in time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CONTINUITY, CHANGE AND VARIATION (DIVIDED USAGE) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Continuity:''' Language exhibits so much complexity that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form; therefore it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our primate ancestors.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Change''': is variation over time in a language's phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features. It is studied by historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Variation:''' Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same thing. Speakers may vary pronunciation (accent), word choice (lexicon), or morphology and syntax (sometimes called &amp;quot;grammar&amp;quot;). But while the diversity of variation is great, there seem to be boundaries on variation – speakers do not generally make drastic alterations in sentence word order or use novel sounds that are completely foreign to the language being spoken. It is studied by sociolinguists.  variation in present‐day system of language: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	one “function“ rendered by two or several „forms“  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	the sense of a starting change  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	or a change as yet uncompleted o  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
examples of variation:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
o	grammar: shone vs. shined &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	grammar / pronunciation / spelling:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	loaf/loaves  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	reef/reefs (but cf. reeve) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	divided usage: hoof/hoofs, hooves, scarf/scarfs, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	(cf. Tolkien on elf/elves vs. elf/elfs)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''ENGLISH HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS, GENERAL LINGUISTICS, PHILOLOGY'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''English Historical Linguistics:''' English historical linguistics is a subfield of linguistics which has developed theories and methods for exploring the history of the English language. It aims to study the long diachrony of English. Its aim is to learn about almost 1,300 years of recorded history of English to understand the present form and function of the language.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''General Linguistics:''' A study of the phenomena, historical changes, and functions of language without restriction to a particular language or to a particular aspect (as phonetics, grammar, stylistics) of language. Its aim is to learn, from the evidence of the one language, about general rules of language change and variation.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Philology:''' Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics. It is more commonly defined as the study of literary texts and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. Its aim is to learn, through language, about the changing historical, social and cultural profile of the English‐speaking community.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''COMPARISON AS THE PRINCIPAL METHOD ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	procedures and sources used for comparison:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
comparison of texts (synchronic and diachronic)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
interdisciplinary comparison (e.g. textual record vs. archeological evidence)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
evidence of closely related languages (e.g. English vs. the Germanic; Latin as a paragon language of culture)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language‐specific evidence vs. universally observed tendencies (e.g. the structure of phonological systems)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
metalinguistic comments (by grammarians, orthographers etc.) on contemporary use of language  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
rhymes, puns etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
variation in Present‐Day English   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CHRONOLOGY''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''OLD ENGLISH (Anglo‐Saxon; c. 700–1100) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the first records (c. A.D. 700) to the Norman Conquest (A.D. 1066 &amp;gt; A.D.1100)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “full” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language of a highly inflected morphological structure and thoroughly Germanic wordstock  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
idea of a continuous development in time: Proto‐Germanic – West Germanic – Anglo‐Frisian – Old English – Middle English   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100–1500): ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the Norman Conquest to c. A.D.1500  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “reduced” endings (= restricted inflection): cf. OE singan– ME singen, singe –  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EModE (to) sing  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
expansion of a written standard form and its increasing homogeneity  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
end of the medieval feudal system and the rise of Renaissance dukes and courtiers  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
beginning of humanism in England  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
breakaway of Church (1534)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
discovery of America (1492)    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (1500–1800):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “lost” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
centralisation of RP standard: stable relative homogeneity emerging out of the maze of coexisting, regional, social, diachronic a stylistic variants  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
fixation of spelling  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
“New Englishes“ – extraterritorial varieties start taking root   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''LATE MODERN ENGLISH (1700–1900):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
change in vocabulary   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
accumulated many more words as a result of two main historical factors:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the Industrial Revolution, which necessitated new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the rise of the British Empire, during which time English adopted many foreign words and made them its own  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH (PDE; 1900– ) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
suffix in adverbs: Today there is a residue of adverbs without the suffix, e.g. far, fast, long, much.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the subjunctive and the modal auxiliaries, tense auxiliaries (future and [plu]perfect), passive, and the progressive (be + -ing)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''BIBLICAL TRANSLATION – JOHN WYCLIFFE ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wycliffe was an advocate for translation of the Bible into the vernacular. He completed a translation directly from the Vulgate into Middle English in the year 1382, now known as Wycliffe's Bible.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. Why is directionality of language change disputable?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is quite clear that [u] presumably never changes to [a] in one step, or that [l] never changes to [b], is not surprising, whereas the unidirectionality of the [u] &amp;gt; [y] change and the [l] &amp;gt; [w] change is much harder to explain.  “&amp;quot;One of the most powerful tools in the armamentarium of linguists engaged in the study of diachronic phonology is the often implicit notion that some changes are phonetically more likely than others . Thus if a linguist finds a systematic correspondence between [g] and [dJ] in two related language varieties, it will be reasonable to assume that the stop is the older variant and the affricate the younger one until strong counter evidence is found. The linguist makes such an assumption because experience with many languages has shown that the change of [g] to [dJ] is fairly common and tends to occur under certain welldocumented conditions whereas the reverse change is unusual and problematic.“ Ferguson, 1990 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. What is the difference between “linguistics” and “philology”?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The distinction between Linguistics and Philology, in simplified terms, is often one of medium: Linguistics focusing on spoken language while Philology, on written language. Philology is the branch of linguistic study devoted to comparative and historical research into the development of languages. In a wider sense, the term sometimes also covers the study of literary texts. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.What are our limitations in access to languages of the past? &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I would say that the main limitation is the fact that there are no recordings of the spoken language from the past, so we have to rely on the written form which probably noticeably differed from the spoken form. Moreover, the first texts were usually of religious nature, so there aren’t enough sources of the “common language” which people used to speak to one another in their private lives etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
6. Provide (preferably your own) examples of variation at various linguistic levels of PDE. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The genitive variation – ‘s or of (that boy’s dog, the dog of that boy). Glottalisation of /t/ (bottle /bɔʔḷ/) on American English X British English. Hung vs hanged.&lt;br /&gt;
grammar: shine-shone, or shine-shined&lt;br /&gt;
grammar/pronunciation/spelling – formation of plurals: loaf-loaves, hoof-hooves but hoofs as well&lt;br /&gt;
lexical: How are you doing? – How do you do? – How are you?&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Diana.Ralisova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=2._Variation_and_change:_profile_and_parameters&amp;diff=38571</id>
		<title>2. Variation and change: profile and parameters</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=2._Variation_and_change:_profile_and_parameters&amp;diff=38571"/>
		<updated>2016-10-20T20:43:32Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Diana.Ralisova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;1. Explain the following parameters of linguistic change: natural, inevitable, unceasing, uneasy to observe.&lt;br /&gt;
* natural – all languages are changing &lt;br /&gt;
* inevitable – no way how to stop the change unceasing – the change is happening continuously &lt;br /&gt;
* uneasy to observe – normally non-existent for a normal speaker &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. Explain the relation between unstoppability/uncontrollability of language change and linguistic prescriptivism. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* A lot of people believe that the change is for the worst – people try to ascertain the language = to get rid of any variation in the language (“There’s one thing, so there must be one name for the thing, no synonyms, nothing else.”). People believed the language is “corrupted” and needs “purifying”, certain words were “forbidden” to use for ex. because of religious reasons.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. Identify and describe the principal ways change in language spreads.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* communal change: adopted by the whole community except old/young &lt;br /&gt;
* or intergenerational change: typical for a generation &lt;br /&gt;
* dependent on social variables: is it coming from below? – ex. BrE x cockney or from above? – adopting the higher classes’ speach  &lt;br /&gt;
* variables: education, sex,… &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. Describe the role of internal and external conditioning factors in the process of language change.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* internally – structural, anything that comes from the structure itself and comes as the language is used&lt;br /&gt;
** economy (easiness) – simplification (e.g. haplology: ME humblely &amp;gt; humbly); similarity (analogy); spelling pronunciation (foreign learners learn E from writing – [ofn] –&amp;gt; [oftn], the rare the words are the more common this is) &lt;br /&gt;
** overdoing it – hypercorrection; overgeneralisation (programme, profile vs. project, problem)  &lt;br /&gt;
** clarity – amplification; transparency (want to make it more transparent – highness x height, heaviness x weight); perceptual (dissimilation: PDE pilgrim &amp;lt; OF pelegrin &amp;lt; Lat peregrīnus (‘foreigner, alien’), OE þēofþ : PDE theft (vs. stealth)) &lt;br /&gt;
** symmetry (phonological, morphological…) filling the gaps: EModE introduction of [ʒ], as counterpart of [ʃ]: rouge, beige, azure 	OE nom. pl. scip-u, word-0, glōf-a, bāt-as... &amp;gt;&amp;gt; PDE: ships, words, gloves, boats &lt;br /&gt;
** renewal – mighty, wondrous, terrible, intensification of adjectives 	reanalysis – used differently, structure acquire new meanings: He is going to the beach. –&amp;gt; He is going to swim. –&amp;gt; He is going to come.  &lt;br /&gt;
* externally – from the society&lt;br /&gt;
** contact-induced changes &lt;br /&gt;
*** traditional model: substratum (the inferior languag) – superstratum (the superior language) –  adstratum  &lt;br /&gt;
*** �“borrowing“ model: reflects social and geographical conditions, how closely the languages interact: cultural borrowing (the least close, Lat from Greek); intimate borrowing (the speakers of the languages live together); dialectal (internal) borrowing (one dialect borrows from another dialect, a very intense contact) &lt;br /&gt;
** languages are separate, but they mix – mainly pidgins and creoles (more official version, a child of 2 speakers of pidgin speaks creole), many changes happen there: simplification (in creole everything becomes regular)&lt;br /&gt;
** language death – language murder (speakers are forced to abandon their native language by the society) x language suicide (the speakers themselves are actively adding new words and adopting more and more features from another language) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5. Identify and describe at least five different potential causes of language change generally. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* phonetic causes: haplology, overgeneralisation (proublem)&lt;br /&gt;
* linguistic causes:&lt;br /&gt;
** internal (above)&lt;br /&gt;
** external (above)/social &lt;br /&gt;
** change in the way the language is written (Great Wovel Shift) &lt;br /&gt;
* semantic causes: &lt;br /&gt;
** semantic changes, broadening of the meaning of the world, the world changes, the technology changes –&amp;gt; the context chang&lt;br /&gt;
** &lt;br /&gt;
6. Discuss the problem of directionality of change in language.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Languages do not improve or deteriorate (just as there are no superior or inferior, primitive ones), they can merely lose their communicative function (language death, not based on change in time but tied to the destinies of the community) – Indian languages. The directionality of language change is disputable because it is so easy to say that the language change has been “seen” or “perceived”, that it “surely had to happen” – there’s no reason for such statements.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
7. Explain the difference between substratum, superstratum and adstratum.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* substratum: a language of low power and prestige &lt;br /&gt;
* superstratum: a language of more power and prestige they both influence ea.o. &lt;br /&gt;
* adstratum: two neighbouring languages that do not differ in power or prestige &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
8. Explain the difference between cultural, intimate and dialect borrowing.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural: the least close – Latin from Greek &lt;br /&gt;
* intimate: the speakers of the language live together &lt;br /&gt;
* dialect borrowing: one dialect borrows from another dialect, a very intense contact &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
9. Explain the principal reasons for the existence of semantic change.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* open-endedness of vocabulary &lt;br /&gt;
* structured nature of vocabulary (cf. the case of loaf and bread)&lt;br /&gt;
* ambiguous contexts&lt;br /&gt;
* inextricable link to the quickly changing and constantly challenging reality: there are always more meanings than words&lt;br /&gt;
* the context changes all the time &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
10. What are the principal conditions of semantic change?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* polysemic nature of (most) words – as we learn from our parents, we take it differently &lt;br /&gt;
* discontinuous transmission of language&lt;br /&gt;
* arbitrary nature of linguistic sign – onomatopoeic X relative stability of items that are not arbitrary in this respect (onomatopoeia)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
11. What are the general causes of semantic change?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
linguistic, historical, social, psychological (e. g. taboo and euphemism) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
12. Explain, using examples, the difference between a) semantic generalisation and specialisation; b) semantic strengthening and weakening; c) semantic amelioration and pejoration; c) changes based on metaphor and metonymy.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* semantic generalisation and specialisation: gen. – drive –&amp;gt; harddrive; spec. – daor “a wild animal” –&amp;gt; deer &lt;br /&gt;
* semantic strengthening and weakening: s. – “hustý”; w. – “To je strašný!” &lt;br /&gt;
* semantic amelioration and pejoration: a. – bloody “discovered blood” –&amp;gt; “bloody”; p. – nice “foolish” –&amp;gt; “nice” &lt;br /&gt;
* changes based on metaphor (Prices are going up.; spring –&amp;gt; “coming up” –&amp;gt; the season) and metonymy (“meal” used to be the time for the meal, not the meal itself) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
13. Other key concepts: social variables; scope of language change; pace of language change; economy, amplification; hypercorrection/generalisation; clarity; symmetry, renewal, reanalysis; pidgins, creoles; language death (murder; suicide); folk-etymology.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* social variables – class, education, sex &lt;br /&gt;
* scope of language change – how large? a language level/phonetic level or a more general level &lt;br /&gt;
* pace of language change – starts with few items and affects all the items, slow beginning, a fast phase, a long stage of the stange being basically finished but some items remain unchanged (irregular verbs – to be), tied to political stability, written standards &lt;br /&gt;
* economy, amplification – internally conditioned changes – simplification (e.g. haplology: ME humblely &amp;gt; humbly); similarity (analogy); spelling pronunciation (foreign learners learn from writing – [ofn] –&amp;gt; [oftn], the rare the words are the more common this is) &lt;br /&gt;
* hypercorrection/generalisation – internally conditioned changes – hypercorrection; overgeneralisation (programme, profile vs. project, problem)  &lt;br /&gt;
* clarity – internally conditioned changes – amplification; transparency (want to make it more transparent – highness x height, heaviness x weight); perceptual (dissimilation: PDE pilgrim &amp;lt; OF pelegrin &amp;lt; Lat peregrīnus (‘foreigner, alien’), OE þēofþ : PDE theft (vs. stealth)) &lt;br /&gt;
* symmetry – int.cond.changes – filling the gaps: EModE introduction of [ʒ], as counterpart of  [ʃ]: rouge, beige, azure, OE nom. pl. scip-u, word-0, glōf-a, bāt-as... &amp;gt;&amp;gt; PDE: ships,  words, gloves, boats &lt;br /&gt;
* renewal – int.cond.changes – mighty, wondrous, terrible, intensification of adjectives &lt;br /&gt;
* reanalysis – int.cond.changes – used differently, structure acquire new meanings: He is going to the beach. –&amp;gt; He is going to swim. –&amp;gt; He is going to come. &lt;br /&gt;
* pidgins, creoles – ext. changes – languages are separate, but they mix – mainly pidgins and creoles (more official version, a child of 2 speakers of pidgin speaks creole), many changes happen there: simplification (in creole everything becomes regular) &lt;br /&gt;
* language death (murder; suicide) – language death – language murder (speakers are forced to abandon their native language by the society) x language suicide (the speakers themselves are actively adding new words and adopting more and more features from another language) &lt;br /&gt;
* folk-etymology – a type of semantic change, (protéger –&amp;gt; protežovat –&amp;gt; protěžovat)&lt;br /&gt;
*&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Diana.Ralisova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38570</id>
		<title>1. Introduction: Welcome to HEL</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38570"/>
		<updated>2016-10-20T20:21:55Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Diana.Ralisova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;1. Important concepts and terms to explain: synchrony and diachrony; continuity, change and variation (divided usage); English historical linguistics, general linguistics, philology; comparison as the principal method; chronology: Old English (c. 700–1100), Middle English (1100– 1500), Early Modern English (1500–1700), Late Modern English (1700–1900), Present-Day English (PDE; 1900– ); biblical translation: Wycliffite; Authorised Version.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''SYNCHRONY AND DIACHRONY '''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Diachrony''': is the change in the meaning of words over time. is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary meaning of words. A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Synchrony: '''A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. That is how languages compare to each other at any given point in time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CONTINUITY, CHANGE AND VARIATION (DIVIDED USAGE) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Continuity:''' Language exhibits so much complexity that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form; therefore it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our primate ancestors.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Change''': is variation over time in a language's phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features. It is studied by historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Variation:''' Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same thing. Speakers may vary pronunciation (accent), word choice (lexicon), or morphology and syntax (sometimes called &amp;quot;grammar&amp;quot;). But while the diversity of variation is great, there seem to be boundaries on variation – speakers do not generally make drastic alterations in sentence word order or use novel sounds that are completely foreign to the language being spoken. It is studied by sociolinguists.  variation in present‐day system of language: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	one “function“ rendered by two or several „forms“  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	the sense of a starting change  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	or a change as yet uncompleted o  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
examples of variation:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
o	grammar: shone vs. shined &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	grammar / pronunciation / spelling:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	loaf/loaves  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	reef/reefs (but cf. reeve) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	divided usage: hoof/hoofs, hooves, scarf/scarfs, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	(cf. Tolkien on elf/elves vs. elf/elfs)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''ENGLISH HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS, GENERAL LINGUISTICS, PHILOLOGY'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''English Historical Linguistics:''' English historical linguistics is a subfield of linguistics which has developed theories and methods for exploring the history of the English language. It aims to study the long diachrony of English. Its aim is to learn about almost 1,300 years of recorded history of English to understand the present form and function of the language.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''General Linguistics:''' A study of the phenomena, historical changes, and functions of language without restriction to a particular language or to a particular aspect (as phonetics, grammar, stylistics) of language. Its aim is to learn, from the evidence of the one language, about general rules of language change and variation.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Philology:''' Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics. It is more commonly defined as the study of literary texts and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. Its aim is to learn, through language, about the changing historical, social and cultural profile of the English‐speaking community.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''COMPARISON AS THE PRINCIPAL METHOD ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	procedures and sources used for comparison:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
comparison of texts (synchronic and diachronic)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
interdisciplinary comparison (e.g. textual record vs. archeological evidence)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
evidence of closely related languages (e.g. English vs. the Germanic; Latin as a paragon language of culture)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language‐specific evidence vs. universally observed tendencies (e.g. the structure of phonological systems)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
metalinguistic comments (by grammarians, orthographers etc.) on contemporary use of language  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
rhymes, puns etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
variation in Present‐Day English   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CHRONOLOGY''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''OLD ENGLISH (Anglo‐Saxon; c. 700–1100) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the first records (c. A.D. 700) to the Norman Conquest (A.D. 1066 &amp;gt; A.D.1100)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “full” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language of a highly inflected morphological structure and thoroughly Germanic wordstock  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
idea of a continuous development in time: Proto‐Germanic – West Germanic – Anglo‐Frisian – Old English – Middle English   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100–1500): ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the Norman Conquest to c. A.D.1500  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “reduced” endings (= restricted inflection): cf. OE singan– ME singen, singe –  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EModE (to) sing  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
expansion of a written standard form and its increasing homogeneity  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
end of the medieval feudal system and the rise of Renaissance dukes and courtiers  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
beginning of humanism in England  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
breakaway of Church (1534)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
discovery of America (1492)    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (1500–1800):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “lost” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
centralisation of RP standard: stable relative homogeneity emerging out of the maze of coexisting, regional, social, diachronic a stylistic variants  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
fixation of spelling  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
“New Englishes“ – extraterritorial varieties start taking root   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''LATE MODERN ENGLISH (1700–1900):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
change in vocabulary   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
accumulated many more words as a result of two main historical factors:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the Industrial Revolution, which necessitated new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the rise of the British Empire, during which time English adopted many foreign words and made them its own  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH (PDE; 1900– ) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
suffix in adverbs: Today there is a residue of adverbs without the suffix, e.g. far, fast, long, much.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the subjunctive and the modal auxiliaries, tense auxiliaries (future and [plu]perfect), passive, and the progressive (be + -ing)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''BIBLICAL TRANSLATION – JOHN WYCLIFFE ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wycliffe was an advocate for translation of the Bible into the vernacular. He completed a translation directly from the Vulgate into Middle English in the year 1382, now known as Wycliffe's Bible.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. Why is directionality of language change disputable?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is quite clear that [u] presumably never changes to [a] in one step, or that [l] never changes to [b], is not surprising, whereas the unidirectionality of the [u] &amp;gt; [y] change and the [l] &amp;gt; [w] change is much harder to explain.  “&amp;quot;One of the most powerful tools in the armamentarium of linguists engaged in the study of diachronic phonology is the often implicit notion that some changes are phonetically more likely than others . Thus if a linguist finds a systematic correspondence between [g] and [dJ] in two related language varieties, it will be reasonable to assume that the stop is the older variant and the affricate the younger one until strong counter evidence is found. The linguist makes such an assumption because experience with many languages has shown that the change of [g] to [dJ] is fairly common and tends to occur under certain welldocumented conditions whereas the reverse change is unusual and problematic.“ Ferguson, 1990 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. What is the difference between “linguistics” and “philology”?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The distinction between Linguistics and Philology, in simplified terms, is often one of medium: Linguistics focusing on spoken language while Philology, on written language. Philology is the branch of linguistic study devoted to comparative and historical research into the development of languages. In a wider sense, the term sometimes also covers the study of literary texts. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.What are our limitations in access to languages of the past? &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I would say that the main limitation is the fact that there are no recordings of the spoken language from the past, so we have to rely on the written form which probably noticeably differed from the spoken form. Moreover, the first texts were usually of religious nature, so there aren’t enough sources of the “common language” which people used to speak to one another in their private lives etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
6. Provide (preferably your own) examples of variation at various linguistic levels of PDE. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The genitive variation – ‘s or of (that boy’s dog, the dog of that boy). Glottalisation of /t/ (bottle /bɔʔḷ/) on American English X British English. Hung vs hanged.&lt;br /&gt;
grammar: shine-shone, or shine-shined&lt;br /&gt;
grammar/pronunciation/spelling – formation of plurals: loaf-loaves, hoof-hooves but hoofs as well&lt;br /&gt;
lexical: How are you doing? – How do you do? – How are you?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
7. Explain the following parameters of linguistic change: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
natural – all languages are changing&lt;br /&gt;
inevitable – no way how to stop the change&lt;br /&gt;
unceasing – the change is happening continuously&lt;br /&gt;
uneasy to observe – normally non-existent for a normal speaker&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
8. Explain the relation between unstoppability/uncontrollability of language change and linguistic prescriptivism. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A lot of people believe that the change is for the worst – people try to ascertain the language = to get rid of any variation in the language (“There’s one thing, so there must be one name for the thing, no synonyms, nothing else.”). People believed the language is “corrupted” and needs “purifying”, certain words were “forbidden” to use for ex. because of religious reasons. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
9. Identify and describe the principal ways change in language spreads.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
communal change: adopted by the whole community except old/young&lt;br /&gt;
or intergenerational change: typical for a generation&lt;br /&gt;
dependent on social variables: is it coming from below? – ex. BrE x cockney or from above? – adopting the higher classes’ speach &lt;br /&gt;
variables: education, sex,…&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Diana.Ralisova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=3._Causes_and_Mechanisms_of_Language_Change&amp;diff=38569</id>
		<title>3. Causes and Mechanisms of Language Change</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=3._Causes_and_Mechanisms_of_Language_Change&amp;diff=38569"/>
		<updated>2016-10-20T20:13:44Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Diana.Ralisova: Dodány otázky&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== 1. What are the usual directions of semantic change and why do you think that is the case? ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''semantic change ''= alteration in the lexical meaning of words and morphemes; it is the most susceptible to change because of the arbitrary connection between the signifier and the signified &lt;br /&gt;
* directions of the semantic change usually come in pairs, one of them is usually more frequent &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1. ''Generalization''&lt;br /&gt;
* widening in scope of a word's meaning - word denotes a greater variety of referrents &lt;br /&gt;
* more frequent than specialization &lt;br /&gt;
* examples: holiday - originally only religious significance, now a general break from work; business - originally the state of being busy &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. ''Specialization ''&lt;br /&gt;
* narrowing of the meaning - lower number of referrents &lt;br /&gt;
* sometimes occurs together with borrowing: a native word is specialized, the borrowing has a general meaning (lust vs. desire)&lt;br /&gt;
* examples: meat - originally &amp;quot;food&amp;quot; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. ''Pejoration ''&lt;br /&gt;
* acquisition of a less favourable meaning &lt;br /&gt;
* more frequent than amelioration&lt;br /&gt;
* examples: &amp;quot;hussy&amp;quot; originally refered to a housewife; names of animals used as derogatory terms &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. ''Amelioration ''&lt;br /&gt;
* acquisition of a more favourable meaning &lt;br /&gt;
* examples: &amp;quot;nice&amp;quot; originally meant &amp;quot;silly, simple&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;success&amp;quot; orginally &amp;quot;result&amp;quot; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5. ''Weakening''&lt;br /&gt;
* for topics that we find difificult to talk about (bodily functions, sex, death) - linguistic taboo - we use euphemisms &lt;br /&gt;
* euphemisms are in continual need of renewal - it may come to be considered too strong after some time &lt;br /&gt;
* examples: condition instead of disease (generalization), pass away (figure of speech), STD (acronyms), darn (phonetic distortion),... &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
6. ''Strengthening''&lt;br /&gt;
* hyperbole, common with intensifiers (&amp;quot;terribly sorry&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;awfully good&amp;quot;)&lt;br /&gt;
* they undergo a continual process of weakening - must be replaced by stronger words&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
7. ''Figurative ''Shifts &lt;br /&gt;
* transfer of meaning from one referrent to another &lt;br /&gt;
* Metaphor: semantic change takes place when a metaphor dies (it is no longer perceived as a metaphor) - eye of a storm, mouth of a river, the days to come &lt;br /&gt;
* Synecdoche: part for a whole - pretty faces (beautiful people), a rhyme (a poem) &lt;br /&gt;
* Metonymy: contiguity of meaning - the White House (the president etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
* Synesthesia: a word referring to one sense is transferred to another/to a non-sensual domain - a quiet colour&lt;br /&gt;
== 2. What is the difference in operation and the relationship between sound change and analogy? ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Both analogy and sound change create new forms in a language&lt;br /&gt;
* X sound change is often regular but it often creates irregular patterns, whereas analogy is irregular and may be sporadic but it removes the irregularities&lt;br /&gt;
* E.g. regular sound change umlaut (back vowels were fronted due to the presence of a front vowel in a later syllable): brother → brethren X irregular analogical change using the non-alternating singular/plural pattern in such nouns as sister → sisters: brother → brothers&lt;br /&gt;
* “sound change is regular but often causes irregularities, analogy is irregular and causes regularity”&lt;br /&gt;
* '''List and briefly define internal causes of language change. a) Factors contributing to change of which the speaker is more or less unconscious: '''&lt;br /&gt;
* Ease of articulation – the speaker exerts the least effort in articulating sounds → assimilation of neighbouring sounds, omissions and clipped forms&lt;br /&gt;
* Perceptual clarity – the hearer requires maximally distinct sounds  (works against ease of articulation)&lt;br /&gt;
* Phonological symmetry – structurally balanced phonological system → language acquires sounds to fill gaps and eliminate sounds that cause asymmetries (e.g. [ž] added to match already existing [š], etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Universal tendencies – e.g. devoicing of final consonants, the loss of final n’s, development of function words and inflections from full words, etc.&lt;br /&gt;
* Efficiency or transparency – to achieve a one-to-one relationship between grammatical form and meaning (e.g. noun plurals indicated by -s, etc.) b) Factors of which the speaker is more or less conscious:&lt;br /&gt;
* Spelling pronunciation – the speaker pronounces a word as it is written rather than as it is conventionally pronounced (e.g. t in often, l in almond, h in forehead, p in clapboard, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Hypercorrection – the speaker may correct a mistake which is not, in fact, a mistake (e.g. cheddar - [tʃetə] instead of [tʃedə],  between you and I instead of you and me, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Overgeneralization – the speaker overgeneralizes a linguistic rule, applying it in contexts where it does not hold (e.g. product - [proʊdəkt] instead of [prɒdəkt], boughten instead of bought, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Analogy – the speaker alters the form by analogy with another form with which it is related, thus eliminating irregularities in the language (e.g. teached instead of taught, pled instead of pleaded, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Renewal – the constant need of renewal of emphatic forms and euphemisms as they cease to convey emphasis or fail to be recognized as euphemisms (e.g. very replaced by totally, hugely, massively, awfully, terribly…, originally a euphemism intercourse replaced by sexual relations, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Reanalysis – the user of the language develops a new understanding of the structure of certain phrases (e.g. according to him: originally past participle according + prepositional phrase to him → now complex preposition according to + object him)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 3. List and briefly define internal causes of language change. ==&lt;br /&gt;
a) Factors contributing to change of which the speaker is more or less unconscious: &lt;br /&gt;
* Ease of articulation – the speaker exerts the least effort in articulating sounds → assimilation of neighbouring sounds, omissions and clipped forms &lt;br /&gt;
* Perceptual clarity – the hearer requires maximally distinct sounds (works against ease of articulation) &lt;br /&gt;
* Phonological symmetry – structurally balanced phonological system → language acquires sounds to fill gaps and eliminate sounds that cause asymmetries (e.g. [ž] added to match already existing [š], etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
* Universal tendencies – e.g. devoicing of final consonants, the loss of final n’s, development of function words and inflections from full words, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
* Efficiency or transparency – to achieve a one-to-one relationship between grammatical form and meaning (e.g. noun plurals indicated by -s, etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) Factors of which the speaker is more or less conscious: &lt;br /&gt;
* Spelling pronunciation – the speaker pronounces a word as it is written rather than as it is conventionally pronounced (e.g. t in often, l in almond, h in forehead, p in clapboard, etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
* Hypercorrection – the speaker may correct a mistake which is not, in fact, a mistake (e.g. cheddar - [tʃetə] instead of [tʃedə], between you and I instead of you and me, etc.) • Overgeneralization – the speaker overgeneralizes a linguistic rule, applying it in contexts where it does not hold (e.g. product - [proʊdəkt] instead of [prɒdəkt], boughten instead of bought, etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
* Analogy – the speaker alters the form by analogy with another form with which it is related, thus eliminating irregularities in the language (e.g. teached instead of taught, pled instead of pleaded, etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
* Renewal – the constant need of renewal of emphatic forms and euphemisms as they cease to convey emphasis or fail to be recognized as euphemisms (e.g. very replaced by totally, hugely, massively, awfully, terribly…, originally a euphemism intercourse replaced by sexual relations, etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
* Reanalysis – the user of the language develops a new understanding of the structure of certain phrases (e.g. according to him: originally past participle according + prepositional phrase to him → now complex preposition according to + object him) &lt;br /&gt;
== 4. Define terms: spelling pronunciation, hypercorrection, analogy, reanalysis, substratum, superstratum, grammaticalisation, conservative and innovative change ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Spelling pronunciation (see above)&lt;br /&gt;
* Hypercorrection (see above)&lt;br /&gt;
* Analogy – a process by which one form becomes like another one with which it is somehow associated (such as having the same function) (e.g. following the pattern of bus  pluralizing to buses, one might form the plural of ox as oxes, etc.) - two types of morphological analogy: a) one that affects the stem (e.g. leaf – leaves X scarf – scarfs/scarves, etc.) b) one that affects affixes (e.g. stone – stones, not OE stanas X child – children, etc.) + false analogy – children’s mistakes (e.g. foot – foots, etc.), back-formation  (e.g. babysit from babysitter, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Reanalysis (see above)&lt;br /&gt;
* Substratum (see below)&lt;br /&gt;
* Superstratum (see below)&lt;br /&gt;
* Grammaticalisation – a process by which a word with full lexical meaning becomes a lexically empty grammatical marker, it may also be reduced phonetically and become and inflection (e.g. OE to, originally a full preposition that took a (verbal) noun object, serves in ModE as a grammatical marker signalling the non-finite form to follow and it is often phonetically reduced to [tə]; OE full lexical verbs shall, will → ModE auxiliary verbs, markers of the future, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Conservative change – change that causes no change in the distinction made (by analogical change, grammaticalisation), only a change in its formal marking (e.g. the use of -s plural marker instead of the OE inflections)&lt;br /&gt;
* Innovative change – change that causes grammatical distinctions be added to or lost (e.g. loss of dual number, of grammatical gender, of the second-person singular pronoun, etc.) 5. Explain the effects of language contact.&lt;br /&gt;
* Language contact – external causes of change caused by encounters with other languages or different dialects of the same language&lt;br /&gt;
* Three types of the effects of other languages: a) contact-induced language change b) extreme language mixture (leading to pidgins, creoles, bilingual mixed languages) c) language death&lt;br /&gt;
** c.a) &amp;quot;suicide&amp;quot; (the speakers import new forms from a prestige language until features of their original language are no longer recognizable)&lt;br /&gt;
** c.b) &amp;quot;murder&amp;quot; (one language is supplanted by another, dominant one, which speakers adopt for various reasons)&lt;br /&gt;
* The most vulnerable component of a language to change – the vocabulary (being augmented by borrowing or loan words = copying them)&lt;br /&gt;
* Reasons for borrowing vocabulary: - the lack of the world for a thing or a concept - the foreign term is shorter or simpler - the foreign term captures a nuance of meaning that we lack - the language from which the word comes may carry prestige or dominate in a particular field&lt;br /&gt;
* Loan words generally become anglicized both phonologically and morphologically, phonology and grammar typically remain untouched&lt;br /&gt;
* Contact works in three ways: a) '''substratum '''– the language of the dominated group influences that of the dominant group (e.g. the minor influence of the Celtic languages on English, etc.) b) '''superstratum ''' – the language of the dominant group influences the languages of the dominated group (e.g. the influence of English upon the German, Ukrainian, Italian, Hindi, etc.) c) '''adstratum ''' – a mixture of languages spoken by groups of equal political and social power (e.g. on the border areas or confined geographical areas)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 5. Explain the effects of language contact. ==&lt;br /&gt;
* Language contact – external causes of change caused by encounters with other languages or different dialects of the same language&lt;br /&gt;
* Three types of the effects of other languages: &lt;br /&gt;
# contact-induced language change &lt;br /&gt;
# extreme language mixture (leading to pidgins, creoles, bilingual mixed languages) &lt;br /&gt;
# language death  &lt;br /&gt;
## “suicide” (the speakers import new forms from a prestige language until features of their original language are no longer recognizable)&lt;br /&gt;
## “murder” (one language is supplanted by another, dominant one, which speakers adopt for various reasons) &lt;br /&gt;
* The most vulnerable component of a language to change – the vocabulary (being augmented by borrowing or loan words = copying them&lt;br /&gt;
* Reasons for borrowing vocabulary:&lt;br /&gt;
# the lack of the world for a thing or a concept&lt;br /&gt;
# the foreign term is shorter or simpler&lt;br /&gt;
# the foreign term captures a nuance of meaning that we lack&lt;br /&gt;
# the language from which the word comes may carry prestige or dominate in a particular field&lt;br /&gt;
* Loan words generally become anglicized both phonologically and morphologically, phonology and grammar typically remain untouched&lt;br /&gt;
* Contact works in three ways: &lt;br /&gt;
# substratum – the language of the dominated group influences that of the dominant group (e.g. the minor influence of the Celtic languages on English, etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
# superstratum – the language of the dominant group influences the languages of the dominated group (e.g. the influence of English upon the German, Ukrainian, Italian, Hindi, etc.) &lt;br /&gt;
# adstratum – a mixture of languages spoken by groups of equal political and social power (e.g. on the border areas or confined geographical areas) &lt;br /&gt;
== 6. Explain the relationship between variation and language change ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Linguistic variable – a set of variant forms that can be used to serve a given function (“a number of ways to say the same thing”)&lt;br /&gt;
* The choice of one variant over another is mostly determined by age, sex and social class of the speaker&lt;br /&gt;
* Variation occurs in all areas of language&lt;br /&gt;
* The frequency of variants is relative, not absolute&lt;br /&gt;
* Language change can occur only if such variables exist and are used in face-to-face conversation among speakers&lt;br /&gt;
* All language changes start with variation, but not all variation leads to language change&lt;br /&gt;
* Some linguistic variables are relatively stable over time (e.g. -ing), some variants are displacing others (e.g. have to displacing must)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 7. How can we determine the sounds of a dead language? ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Working with exclusively written records&lt;br /&gt;
* Variety of clues must be pieced together: a) the statements of contemporary grammarians, lexicographers and other writers b) puns, word plays and rhymes in the literature c) the representation of natural sounds in onomatopoeic words d) scribal variations and non-standard spellings that often reflect actual pronunciations e) the development of a sound in closely related languages d) the structure of the hypothesized phonological system that is assumed to be similar to the modern one (tending towards symmetry, pairing voiced and voiceless consonants or back and front vowels, etc.) 8. List and briefly define types of sound change including the conditioned and unconditioned types.&lt;br /&gt;
* Two classes: a) unconditioned change – every instance of a particular sound change, regardless of its phonetic environment - common for an entire class of sounds – sound shift (the First Sound Shift, the Great Vowel Shift) b) conditioned change – particular sound change only in certain phonetic environment, the operation of the change depends upon the neighbouring sounds  (= conditioning environment)&lt;br /&gt;
* Assimilation – a sound becomes similar to a neighbouring sound in voicing, manner of articulation or place of articulation (e.g. -band is added to house, the final [s] of the root is voiced to [z] to match the voiced [b] → partial assimilation; -man added to wif, the [f] becomes [m] to match the following [m] → complete assimilation) - regressive assimilation – one sound reaches back to effect the preceding one - progressive assimilation – one sound reaches forward to affect the following sound - distant assimilation – the sound to which another sound assimilates is in the neighbouring syllable&lt;br /&gt;
* Dissimilation – a sound becomes dissimilar to a neighbouring sound (e.g. [r] in Latin peregrinus dissimilated to [l] in Modern English pilgrim, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Addition of a sound – prompted by the difficulty of coordinating articulatory movements - common for a stop to be inserted in sequences of nasals, liquids and fricatives (e.g. OE spinel &amp;gt; ModE spindle; ME slumere &amp;gt; ModE slumber; pronunciation of prince with [t] between [n] and [s]; ME soun &amp;gt; ModE sound (at the end – excrescent stop), etc.) + schwa (e.g. chim/ə/ney, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* mem(o)ry, etc.) - final loss – apocope (e.g. OE sunu &amp;gt; ModE son, etc.) - simplification of a consonant cluster (e.g. loss of the initial consonant in knit; medial in godspel &amp;gt; godspel; final in dumb, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Metathesis – the reversal or reordering of two sounds (common with sequences of liquids and vowels or of fricatives and stops) (e.g. OE beorth &amp;gt; ModE bright, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* The types of sound changes listed above affect only individual lexical items and do not generally alter the phonological system itself&lt;br /&gt;
* The changes that may affect the language inventory of distinctive (or contrastive) sounds:  merging or splitting of sounds, allophone becoming a morpheme (phonemicization), losses or additions of sounds, altering of any aspect of the articulation of a vowel or consonant (diphthongization, monophthongization, reduction), vowel changes (lengthening, shortening), consonant changes (labialization, velarization, palatalization, fricativization, rhotacism, lenition, vocalization, voicing/devoicing)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 8. List and briefly define types of sound change including the conditioned and unconditioned types. ==&lt;br /&gt;
* Two classes: &lt;br /&gt;
# unconditioned change – every instance of a particular sound change, regardless of its phonetic environment - common for an entire class of sounds – sound shift (the First Sound Shift, the Great Vowel Shift)&lt;br /&gt;
# conditioned change – particular sound change only in certain phonetic environment, the operation of the change depends upon the neighbouring sounds (= conditioning environment)&lt;br /&gt;
* Assimilation – a sound becomes similar to a neighbouring sound in voicing, manner of articulation or place of articulation (e.g. -band is added to house, the final [s] of the root is voiced to [z] to match the voiced [b] → partial assimilation; -man added to wif, the [f] becomes [m] to match the following [m] → complete assimilation)&lt;br /&gt;
** regressive assimilation – one sound reaches back to effect the preceding one&lt;br /&gt;
** progressive assimilation – one sound reaches forward to affect the following sound&lt;br /&gt;
** distant assimilation – the sound to which another sound assimilates is in the neighbouring syllable &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Dissimilation – a sound becomes dissimilar to a neighbouring sound (e.g. [r] in Latin peregrinus dissimilated to [l] in Modern English pilgrim, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Addition of a sound – prompted by the difficulty of coordinating articulatory movements - common for a stop to be inserted in sequences of nasals, liquids and fricatives (e.g. OE spinel &amp;gt; ModE spindle; ME slumere &amp;gt; ModE slumber; pronunciation of prince with [t] between [n] and [s]; ME soun &amp;gt; ModE sound (at the end – excrescent stop), etc.) + schwa (e.g. chim/ə/ney, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Loss of a sound&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
** loss of an initial vowel (e.g. opossum &amp;gt; possum, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
** loss of a medial vowel – syncope (e.g. mem(o)ry, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
** final loss – apocope (e.g. OE sunu &amp;gt; ModE son, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
** simplification of a consonant cluster (e.g. loss of the initial consonant in knit; medial in godspel &amp;gt; godspel; final in dumb, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* Metathesis – the reversal or reordering of two sounds (common with sequences of liquids and vowels or of fricatives and stops) (e.g. OE beorth &amp;gt; ModE bright, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* The types of sound changes listed above affect only individual lexical items and do not generally alter the phonological system itself&lt;br /&gt;
* The changes that may affect the language inventory of distinctive (or contrastive) sounds: merging or splitting of sounds, allophone becoming a morpheme (phonemicization), losses or additions of sounds, altering of any aspect of the articulation of a vowel or consonant (diphthongization, monophthongization, reduction), vowel changes (lengthening, shortening), consonant changes (labialization, velarization, palatalization, fricativization, rhotacism, lenition, vocalization, voicing/devoicing) &lt;br /&gt;
== 9. List and briefly define types of semantic change ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* An alternation in the lexical meaning of words and morphemes&lt;br /&gt;
* Generalization – the widening in scope of a word’s meaning, allowing it to denote a greater variety of referents → a reduction in the number of semantic features (e.g. holiday originally referred only to “holy days”; crisis to “a turning point of a disease”; carry to “transport in a vehicle”, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Specialization – the narrowing in scope of a word’s meaning → the number of referents of the words decrease (e.g. sermon originally referred to “a speech, discourse”; cellar to “a storehouse”; meat to “food”, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Pejoration – the acquisition of a less favourable meaning, a lowering in the value judgment associated with the referent (e.g. villan originally referred to “a low-born or common person”; poison to “potion, drink”; cunning to “knowledgeable”, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Amelioration – the acquisition of a more favourable meaning, an elevation in the value judgment involved in the referent (e.g. mansion originally referred to “a house, dwelling”; spill to “shed blood”; nice to “silly, simple”, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Weakening and Strengthening – the use of a word that is weaker than is required by the circumstances, context (→ a kind of understatement that may lead to strengthening of that word) or the use of a word that is stronger than is required by the circumstances, context (→ a kind of overstatement that may result in weakening of that word) - the use of euphemisms in order to avoid the direct terms for topics that are difficult to talk about (= linguistic taboo) - the forming of euphemisms: a) '''generalization''' – use of a wider or more general term (e.g. condition for “disease”, etc.) b) '''splitting features '''– lessening the impact by dividing the semantic features between two words (e.g. pre-owned for “used”, etc.) c) '''borrowing words''' – use of a neo-Latin of Greek pseudo-technical term (e.g. expire, etc.) d) '''figure of speech''' – use of a metaphor (e.g. pass (away), etc.) or a metonymy (e.g. in his cups for drunk, etc.) e) '''semantic shift '''– use of the name of one part of the process to denote another part (e.g. to go to the bathroom, etc.) f) '''phonetic distortion''' (taboo deformation) – alternation of the phonetic form of the word (e.g. shoot, etc.) g) '''diminutives''' – addition of a diminutive suffix (e.g. tummy, etc.) or the use of replication (e.g. wee-wee, etc.) h) '''acronyms or initialism''' (e.g. TB for “tuberculosis”, etc.) - the use of the hyperbole (common with intensifiers and expressions like I’m dying to = “I want to”, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Figurative shifts – a transfer of meaning from one referent to another - most widely known – metaphor, which contains an implied comparison based on similar semantic features of two referents (e.g. “He is a rat.”, etc.), when a metaphor dies, i.e. when the metaphorical meaning is no longer recognized but has become part of the denotation of the word, then a semantic change has taken place (e.g. eye of the storm, etc.)  	- shift from concrete to abstract meaning – often from physical to mental meaning (e.g.    	translate meant “to carry across”, etc.), shift from abstract to concrete (e.g. essay meant “an   	attempt, a trial”, etc.), shift from spatial to temporal meaning (e.g. the days to come, etc.) - synecdoche – the name of a part is used for the whole (e.g. new blood, etc.) or a thing is named by the substance which composes it (e.g. a glass, etc.) - metonymy – something is named by an object associated with it (e.g. the crown = “the king/queen”, etc.) - synesthesia – a word referring to one sense is transferred to another or to non-sensual domain (e.g. a bright idea, etc.) - a word naming an internal psychological state is used to refer to an external object evoking that state (e.g. dreadful occasion, etc.) or vice versa (e.g. happy person, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Invited inferences – meanings which arise in context “on the fly” and must be inferred by hearers become part of the conventional, denotational meaning of the word (also called conversational implicatures) - e.g. since – originally a temporal meaning: Since dinner, I have been reading. X in certain contexts – causal meaning: Since he left, I have been sad. = after/because, or the causal meaning becomes part of the denotation of the word: Since you are rich, why don’t you buy a new house? = because&lt;br /&gt;
* Cultural change – change to a word’s referents (e.g. picture – “a visual representation”, but also a cinematic movie, X-ray, a television image, a photograph, a computer-generated graphic, etc.)&lt;br /&gt;
* Social change – people imitating the usage of the upper classes or of authorities such as psychologists or psychoanalysts (e.g. an outgoing person is an extrovert, etc.) or sociologists (e.g. the person we admire is our role model, etc.) → popularization of these specialized terms - or, people imitating the usage of the lower classes by adopting slang (e.g. leak for “disclose information”, etc.) &amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Diana.Ralisova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
</feed>