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	<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&amp;feedformat=atom&amp;user=Elena.Tkacheva</id>
	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
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	<updated>2026-05-15T19:02:23Z</updated>
	<subtitle>Příspěvky uživatele</subtitle>
	<generator>MediaWiki 1.33.0</generator>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18435</id>
		<title>The Early Modern English Period</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18435"/>
		<updated>2015-03-31T09:06:37Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;5.  '''The Great Vowel Shift''' &amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 123-154 pp.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* mismatch between spelling and pronunciation: begun in ME, spelling fixed by early XVI century, but the sound kept changing). &lt;br /&gt;
* change of quality of all long vowels (stressed syllables)&lt;br /&gt;
* standardization of the language: synthetic -&amp;gt; analytic &lt;br /&gt;
* most significant of all phonological developments in English&lt;br /&gt;
* change in pronunciaion of verb tense&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;glottopedia.org&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;[[File:350px-GVS.jpg|400px]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18434</id>
		<title>The Early Modern English Period</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_Early_Modern_English_Period&amp;diff=18434"/>
		<updated>2015-03-31T09:04:32Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;5.  '''The Great Vowel Shift''' &amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 123-154 pp.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
 - mismatch between spelling and pronunciation: begun in ME, spelling fixed by early XVI century, but the sound kept changing). &lt;br /&gt;
- change of quality of all long vowels (stressed syllables)&lt;br /&gt;
- standardization of the language: synthetic -&amp;gt; analytic &lt;br /&gt;
- most significant of all phonological developments in English&lt;br /&gt;
- change in pronunciaion of verb tense&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;glottopedia.org&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:350px-GVS.jpg|400px]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Soubor:350px-GVS.jpg&amp;diff=18433</id>
		<title>Soubor:350px-GVS.jpg</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Soubor:350px-GVS.jpg&amp;diff=18433"/>
		<updated>2015-03-31T08:57:44Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: MsUpload&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;MsUpload&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7019</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7019"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T14:43:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* Limitations in the Literature from Old English Period[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin script adapted for use with English is adopted&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Quirk, R. and C.L. Wrenn (1957) An Old English Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. Slocum, J. and W.P. Lehmann (2009, 2010) &amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive/imperative) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Limitations in the Literature from Old English Period&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* little material available before 700 &lt;br /&gt;
* limited fields of writing: mostly legal and religious texts &lt;br /&gt;
* diversity of form and content&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7018</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7018"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T14:32:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin script adapted for use with English is adopted&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Quirk, R. and C.L. Wrenn (1957) An Old English Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. Slocum, J. and W.P. Lehmann (2009, 2010) &amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive/imperative) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Limitations in the Literature from Old English Period&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* little material available before 700 &lt;br /&gt;
* limited fields of writing: mostly legal and religious texts &lt;br /&gt;
* diversity of forms&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7014</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7014"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T14:18:27Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin script adapted for use with English is adopted&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Quirk, R. and C.L. Wrenn (1957) An Old English Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. Slocum, J. and W.P. Lehmann (2009, 2010) &amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Limitations in the Literature from Old English Period&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* little material available before 700 &lt;br /&gt;
* limited fields of writing: mostly legal and religious texts &lt;br /&gt;
* diversity of forms&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7000</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=7000"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T11:24:26Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English[2]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Quirk, R. and C.L. Wrenn (1957) An Old English Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. Slocum, J. and W.P. Lehmann (2009, 2010) &amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Limitations in the Literature from Old English Period&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* little material available before 700 &lt;br /&gt;
* limited fields of writing: mostly legal and religious texts &lt;br /&gt;
* diversity of forms&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6999</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6999"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T11:23:30Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Quirk, R. and C.L. Wrenn (1957) An Old English Grammar. 2nd ed. London: Methuen. Slocum, J. and W.P. Lehmann (2009, 2010) &amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6998</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6998"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T11:21:26Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* Christianization in Britain.[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Nouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
'' giefu          giefe          giefe     giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural &lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine) -  ''gifts giefu giefa/giefe''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Adjectives ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
''                 gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular/plural ''(gōda/gōdan)''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter &lt;br /&gt;
''gōda             gōde         gōde  ''&lt;br /&gt;
* comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}. &lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' lēof     lēofra    lēofost ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronouns ===&lt;br /&gt;
* case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular) &lt;br /&gt;
''                   hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural) &lt;br /&gt;
we two - ''wit''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
you two - ''git''&lt;br /&gt;
* gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter      &lt;br /&gt;
this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)      &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''þes            þeōs                 þis ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Verbs ===&lt;br /&gt;
* strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
* person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)   &lt;br /&gt;
am    are     is   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''eom  eart    is ''&lt;br /&gt;
* number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''cuman      cōm           cōmon''&lt;br /&gt;
* tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})&lt;br /&gt;
to live       lives    lived         had lived &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod''&lt;br /&gt;
* mood: (indicative/subjunctive) &lt;br /&gt;
be     would be &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''bēo   bēon''&lt;br /&gt;
* aspect (expressed by prefixes) &lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''beornan     forbeornan''&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6997</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6997"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T11:12:09Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* References */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== References ==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6996</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6996"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T11:11:08Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* Christianization in Britain.  */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;br /&gt;
Inflectionally Expressed Grammatical Categories in Old English.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Nouns:&lt;br /&gt;
	1. case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
nominative  genitive  dative  accusative&lt;br /&gt;
giefu            giefe        giefe    giefe&lt;br /&gt;
	2. number: singular/plural&lt;br /&gt;
gift(feminine)	 gifts&lt;br /&gt;
giefu                giefa/giefe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Adjectives: strong/weak&lt;br /&gt;
	1. case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative&lt;br /&gt;
nominative  genitive  dative    accusative&lt;br /&gt;
gōda            gōdan      gōdan    gōdan&lt;br /&gt;
	2. number: singular/plural (gōda/gōdan)&lt;br /&gt;
	3. gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter&lt;br /&gt;
masc. fem.   neuter. plural&lt;br /&gt;
gōda   gōde   gōde   gōdan&lt;br /&gt;
	4. comparative {-ra} and superlative {-ost(a)}.&lt;br /&gt;
dear    dearer   dearest&lt;br /&gt;
 lēof   lēofra    lēofost&lt;br /&gt;
Pronouns &lt;br /&gt;
	1. case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental (masculine and neuter of the 3rd person singular)&lt;br /&gt;
nominative genitive dative accusative instrumental&lt;br /&gt;
hē                his          him      hine         hȳ /heō&lt;br /&gt;
	2. number: singular, plural, dual (later replaced by plural)&lt;br /&gt;
we two  you two&lt;br /&gt;
wit         git&lt;br /&gt;
	3. gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter&lt;br /&gt;
     this         this (feminine)   this (neuter)&lt;br /&gt;
     þes            þeōs                 þis&lt;br /&gt;
Verbs: strong/weak conjugation&lt;br /&gt;
	1. person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)&lt;br /&gt;
  am    are     is&lt;br /&gt;
  eom  eart    is&lt;br /&gt;
	2. number (singular/plural)&lt;br /&gt;
to come   came (he)  came (they)&lt;br /&gt;
cuman      cōm           cōmon&lt;br /&gt;
	3. tense (present or past {-ode}/preterite {-od})	&lt;br /&gt;
to live   lives    lived   had lived&lt;br /&gt;
wunian  wunað  wunode    wunod               &lt;br /&gt;
	4. mood: (indicative/subjunctive)&lt;br /&gt;
be     would be&lt;br /&gt;
bēo   bēon&lt;br /&gt;
	5. aspect (expressed by prefixes)&lt;br /&gt;
burn        burn up&lt;br /&gt;
beornan   forbeornan&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6995</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6995"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T11:10:32Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* Christianization in Britain. */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6994</id>
		<title>Old English: Early Germanic Britain</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_Early_Germanic_Britain&amp;diff=6994"/>
		<updated>2014-10-21T11:09:59Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Elena.Tkacheva: /* Place-names (toponyms)[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== Place-names (toponyms)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The history of English: an introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* the first speakers of an Indo-European language - the Celts - settled in Britain around 2000 BCE, though more likely around 1000 BCE&lt;br /&gt;
* Celtic contributed little to English, its influence is most manifest in place-names&lt;br /&gt;
* two main sources of linguistic origins of place names (toponyms):&lt;br /&gt;
**prominent features of the landscape (a river, a hill, a flat-plain)&lt;br /&gt;
**name of the inhabitants of the area (whose place it is)&lt;br /&gt;
*two kinds of toponyms:&lt;br /&gt;
**source in one single language&lt;br /&gt;
***Purely Celtic names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Bernicia'', ''Devon'' = tribal names&lt;br /&gt;
****''Kent'' – “border”&lt;br /&gt;
****Kingdom of ''Deira'' &amp;lt; Celtic Deifr – “water”&lt;br /&gt;
****Rivers: ''Avon'' – “river”, ''Esk'' and ''Exe'' &amp;lt; isca – “water”, ''Ouse'' – “stream, ''Thames'' – “dark river” &amp;lt; ''tamesis'' – “darkness”&lt;br /&gt;
**hybrid forms&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Latin combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Lincoln'' – combines Celtic ''lindon'' (“pool”) with Latin ''colonia'' (“colony, settlement”) &lt;br /&gt;
****''Lancaster'' – combines the Celtic names for the River Lune (“pure” / “healthy”) with ''–caster'' (~ - ''caster, -chester'') derived from Latin ''castrum'' (“camp”, “settlement”)&lt;br /&gt;
***Celtic-Germanic combinations&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cornwall'' – ''cornovii'' (a Celtic tribe) + ''wealas'' (Germanic “foreigner, servant, slave”)&lt;br /&gt;
****''Cumberland'' – ''Cymry'' (Celtic “Welsh”) + ''land'' (Germanic “land”)&lt;br /&gt;
*reflect the distribution of the tribes – tell us who lived where and occupied the land long enough to impose their own place-names&lt;br /&gt;
**Celtic toponyms appear all around England, but more prominent toward the West and North – areas which remained Celtic-speaking longer&lt;br /&gt;
**West Germanic place – names found esp. in the South and Southeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ham'' – “homestead” (Birmingham)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-bury, -borough'' – “castle” (Marlborough, Salisbury)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ing(s)'' – “the people/family of” (Hastings, Worthing)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-ton'' – “enclosure, village” (Northampton)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-field''  (Sheffield)&lt;br /&gt;
**North Germanic (Scandinavian) – found esp. in the North and Northeast&lt;br /&gt;
***''-by'' – “farm”/”town” (Barmby)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-holm'' – “flat riverside, land, or island” (Downholme)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-thorp(e)'' – “village” (Nunthorpe) &lt;br /&gt;
***''-thwaite'' – “isolated parcel of land” (Langthwaite)&lt;br /&gt;
***''-toft'' – “homestead” (Langtoft)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Roman settlement &lt;br /&gt;
**Latin borrowings:&lt;br /&gt;
***''portus'' – “harbour” (Portsmouth)&lt;br /&gt;
***''strata'' – “street, road” (Stratford)&lt;br /&gt;
***''vicus'' – “farm”/”village” (Keswick)&lt;br /&gt;
*influence of the Norman Conquest&lt;br /&gt;
**French&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaulieu'' – ''beau-'' (“beautiful”) + ''-lieu'' (“place”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Beaumont'' - ''-mont'' (“hill”)&lt;br /&gt;
***''Enville'' - ''-ville'' (“village, farm, field”)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Christianization in Britain.  ==&lt;br /&gt;
* happened between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and the invasion of the Vikings (late 6th century)&lt;br /&gt;
* arrived in 597 with St. Augustine of Canterbury (a missionary sent by Pope Gregory I) who converted the King of Kent (Æðelbirht), the most powerful king south of the Humber River&lt;br /&gt;
* close relationship between Church and State rivalry between the Celtic and the Roman churches&lt;br /&gt;
* dispute settled  at the Synod of Whitby (664)&lt;br /&gt;
* all England is nominally Christian by 700&lt;br /&gt;
* cultural upswing, use of Latin in the services, flowering of ecclesiastical learning, stimulation of vernacular literature and art&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence of church music, modernized agriculture, development of literacy&lt;br /&gt;
* monasteries produce manuscripts for liturgical and educational use&lt;br /&gt;
* successful cultivation and preservation of Latin literature&lt;br /&gt;
* Nordic-Germanic runes still present (Ruthwell Cross)&lt;br /&gt;
* earlier pagan practices remained e.g. weekdays named for Nordic gods, Easter named for dawn-goddess&lt;br /&gt;
* Latin returned with the introduction of Christianity and exerted considerable influence on English: loanwords of religious and scientific nature. &lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kategorie: Anglistika-amerikanistika|*]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Elena.Tkacheva</name></author>
		
	</entry>
</feed>