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	<title>Wikisofia - Příspěvky uživatele [cs]</title>
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	<updated>2026-05-14T18:49:20Z</updated>
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		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=5._Germanic_and_the_Development_of_Old_English&amp;diff=38823</id>
		<title>5. Germanic and the Development of Old English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=5._Germanic_and_the_Development_of_Old_English&amp;diff=38823"/>
		<updated>2016-10-29T16:02:22Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Ester.Fendrychova: Doplnění většiny otázek.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;=== 1. Compare the two contact situations described in this chapter (Celtic &amp;amp; Old English; and Old English &amp;amp; Old Norse, as spoken by the Vikings) and their effects on the development of English.  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===&amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 2. Remember that two exceptions are mentioned in connection with Grimm’s Law. Describe them and try to explain why one is traditionally mentioned as a part of the Grimm’s Law, while the other one as a separate (though directly related) change. ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
When Grimm's law was discovered, two types of irregularities were spotted as well. These exceptions from the Grimm’s law involve firstly reflexes of the PIE voiceless stops, which appear in Germanic as voiced fricatives (and later usually as voiced stops) rather than as the voiceless fricatives. For example the word father, evolved from PIE phater to fader in ProtoGermanic.   Secondly, PIE *s is also affected, shifting first to *z and then to *r. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can still observe these alternations in the ModE pairs was/were, lost/(for)lorn. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It was Karl Verner who discovered the reasons for these irregularities. He realized that it was matter of a conditioned sound change brought about by the place of the accent in the word. Hence, the law is If a PIE voiceless stop is in a voiced environment, then it will appear in Germanic as a voiced fricative (or stop) when the PIE accent does not fall on the immediately preceding syllable (i.e. vowel).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Basically, Verner observed that the lack of stress is associated with voicing, and we can see that in Modern English in the pairs off (a stressed adverb and hence voiceless) and of (an unstressed preposition and hence voiced). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In such a system the accent in a word can fall on any syllable (depending on the word and how it is inflected). This accentual system is retained in Sanskrit and Classical Greek. An important change between PIE and Germanic, however, is the development of a system of fixed ‘stress accent’, which depends on variations in loudness. In the fixed accentual system of Germanic, the accent falls always on the first or root syllable of the word. T&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
he original location of stress was often retained in Greek and early Sanskrit; in Germanic, though, stress eventually became fixed on the initial (root) syllable of all words. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The crucial difference between *patḗr and *bʰrā́tēr was therefore one of second-syllable versus first-syllable stress (cf. Sanskrit pitā́ versus bhrā́tā).  Similarly, in PIE, the accent of the infinitive is on the first syllable (as it is in Greek). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
So, we find the consonants expected by Grimm’s Law. However, the accent of the past participle is on the second syllable (as it is in Greek), not immediately preceding the consonant, and so these consonants are predicted by Verner's Law. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 3. What is Proto-Germanic and what are its main branches? ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Proto-Germanic''' is the parent language of the languages in the Germanic branch of Indo-European. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The speakers were a subgroup of the people who left the Indo-European homeland perhaps as early as the tenth century BCE. Because of geographical separation from other Indo-Europeans, they developed a distinct dialect, or language, over time. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''''MAIN BRANCHES '''''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;'''West Germanic''' – High (German, Yiddish, Swiss German X Low (Plattdeutsch, Dutch, Afrikaans, Flemish, Frisian, ENGLISH) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''North Germanic '''– West (Norwegian, Icelandic, Faeroese) X East (Sweidsh, Danish) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''East Germanic''' – (Gothic, Vandalic, Burgundian) – all are extinct &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 4. How is Gothic important for the study of the history of English? ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The oldest record of East Germanic is a translation of parts of the Greek New Testament into Gothic. This translation was made around 350 CE by a Bishop Wulfila (or Ulfilas), a Visigoth who was apparently fluently bilingual in Greek and Gothic (he may have had a Greek mother) and who adapted the Greek alphabet to write Gothic. His Bible translation is linguistically a very important document giving an extensive and accurate record of an older form of this language family. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===&amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 5. Describe the grammatical and lexical changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Aspect '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- completed vs ongoing action in Germanic languages (vs. three-way aspectual distinction in PIE)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Tense '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
– expresses the concept of time &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The system which developed in Germanic is especially simple, conflating the past and perfect stems of PIE to form the preterit tense, and retaining the present stems as the present tense. While we usually think of Modern English as having three tenses, we must keep in mind that we indicate only two tenses by simple inflection, e.g. walk (pres.) and walked (pret.), while we must use a periphrastic form, e.g. will walk/be going to walk, to indicate the future.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Preterit'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The way in which the preterit tense is expressed also changed. Germanic inherited from PIE a means of forming the preterit by ablaut (changing the root vowel) to indicate present, preterit, and past participle forms of the verb. We see evidence of this in Modern English in the strong (nowadays termed irregular) verbs such as begin/be gan/begun, write/wrote/written, drink!drank/drunk, where the preterit and past participle are distinguished from the infinitive (present) by different vowels. In Germanic, there are seven regular patterns of such vowel gradation.  In addition to IE ablaut; Germanic innovated a second means of expressing the preterit, using a dental suffix, a term used to denote the final alveolar stops in Modern English. Today’s regular verbs, such as love/loved, walk/walked, load/loaded, form their past tense in this way, using -d, -t, or -ed. Jacob Grimm, a nineteenth-century grammarian (as well as a collector of Germanic fairy tales), called such verbs weak as opposed to strong. The origin of the dental suffix is obscure, although it is  thought that it may derive from a form of the verb do which has become attached to the verb as a suffix. The weak pattern became the productive, or analogical, means of making preterit forms in Germanic. In Modern English, most verbs are weak, and any verb entering the language forms its preterit using a dental suffix. We can see this with an invented verb such as glick\ we instinctively form the preterit as glicked. The once-standard IE system of ablaut (which would give us something like glick/ glack/gluck) has given way to the Germanic innovation. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Mood '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Germanic retained indicative (fact), imperative (command) but conflated optative, injunctive (unreality) and subjunctive (possibility) as the subjunctive which indicates all non-factual events apart from direct commands.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Voice '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In addition to an active voice, PIE has a middle voice inflection, comparable to the ModE reflexive form {John burned himself) in which the subject is both acting and acted upon. The middle voice was lost in Germanic, except in Gothic, where it was retained in a limited way, and in Old Norse. In all other cases, a new phrasal passive takes its place. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Nominal system – case '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The nominal system of Germanic simplified the case distinctions of PIE. Case is an indication, by means of inflection, of the function of a noun in a sentence: whether it is subject, object, indirect object, and so on. PIE inflects nouns for eight cases. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In Germanic, a number of these cases fell together, in what is called case syncretism, so that only five cases are marked:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
« nominative (combining nominative and vocative). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• accusative, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• genitive, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• dative (combining ablative, locative, and dative), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
• instrumental  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Adjectival endings '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The set of adjectival endings inherited from PIE came to be used when an adjective alone modifies the noun, e.g. gode batas ( ‘good boats’), but Germanic developed an additional set of adjectival endings which are used when modifiers other than an adjective, such as a demonstrative {this, that) or possessive adjective {my, your, his), occur with the noun, e.g.pa godan batas (‘these good boats’). Jacob Grimm called the former strong, or indefinite, and the latter weak, or definite.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Vocabulary '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A large number of words in Germanic, perhaps one-third, are not found in any of the other IE languages. These include such common words as ''brew, bride, death, earth, goose, gold, sea, soul'', and ''weave''. While these could conceivably be IE words lost in the other branches, it is also possible that they are neologisms or loan words from a non-IE language with which Germanic came into contact during the Common period. Without any direct evidence for such a substratum, we may only speculate about how this non-IE vocabulary entered Germanic.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===&amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 6. Describe the Grimm’s Law: what was affected, how was it affected, what kind of change was it. Illustrate with examples. ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
One of the two most important sound changes affecting the history of English is the First Sound Shift, the other is the Great Vowel Shift.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The First Sound Shift consist of Grimm’s Law and Verner’s Law. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Grimm’s Law is a phonological change which affected all the stop consonants of PIE and it was described in detail by Jacob Grimm in his grammar of German in 1828, hence the name Grimm’s Law.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Grimm’s Law affects only the stop consonants of PIE; it does not affect the one fricative *s, the liquids *1 and *r, the nasals *m and *n, or the glides *w and *j, which remain unchanged in Germanic.  It affected all the Germanic languages and is dated between 1000 and 400 BCE. Its causes are unknown.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'' It happens in three parts: ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''1.FRICATIVIZATION'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
All voiceless stops in PIE became the corresponding voiceless fricatives in Germanic, that is:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''p&amp;gt;f '''(PIE pəter &amp;gt; OE fæder) = father &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''t&amp;gt;θ''' (trei &amp;gt; θreo) = three &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''k&amp;gt;x '''[chá] or h (in initial positions) [krewə &amp;gt; hreaw] = raw  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''kw &amp;gt; xw or hw '''(in initial position) [kw od &amp;gt; hwæt] = what  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Note that [x] represents a voiceless velar fricative, a sound not found in Modern English, and that the superscript [w] represents a sound produced with lip rounding.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.Voiceless stops '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
All the voiced stops in PIE become the corresponding voiceless stops in Germanic. There is no change in position or in manner of articulation, just in voicing.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''b&amp;gt;p '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
PIE kan(n)abi &amp;gt; OE hænep &amp;gt; ModE hemp = cannabis  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''d&amp;gt;t '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
PIE dekm &amp;gt; ModE ten &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''g&amp;gt;k '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
PIE genu &amp;gt; OE cneo = knee  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''gw&amp;gt;kw '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
PIE gwei &amp;gt; OE cwicu = living &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''' 3. Voiced aspirated stops &amp;gt; voiced fricatives'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
All voiced aspirated stops in PIE become the corresponding voiced fricatives. Later, the voiced fricatives become voiced stops in Germanic. The net effect is that they lose aspiration.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Bh&amp;gt; b'''     PIE bhrater &amp;gt; OE broþor  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Dh &amp;gt; d '''   PIE əndhero &amp;gt; OE under &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Gh &amp;gt; g '''   PIE wegh (ride) &amp;gt;OE weg (road)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Gwh &amp;gt; g or w '''   PIE gwher &amp;gt;OE warm &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 7. What is relative chronology and how can it be applied to Grimm’s Law, Verner’s Law, Germanic Accent Shift and Second Germanic Sound Shift? ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Relative chronology''' is when two or more changes can be put in chronological order relative to each other. This is usually possible because the result of one change would have been different if it had preceded or followed the other. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Because of the change to a fixed accent system in Germanic, the conditions for Verner’s Law are obscured: the accent always appears on the first syllable in Germanic, even when it was originally on another syllable in PIE. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
While this fixing of stress makes it difficult to determine the conditions for Verner’s Law, it does allow us to order the changes involved. We can tell that they must have occurred in the following sequence: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''1. Grimm’s Law '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2. Verner’s Law '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''3. Accent shift ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 8. What is a drag/pull chain and a push chain? ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===&amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;===&lt;br /&gt;
In a '''drag chain''', one sound shifts, leaving a gap which is filled by the shift of another sound. The first sound thus ‘drags’ the second sound into its place. It’s typical for consonantal sifts, like Grimm’s Law.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The opposite mechanism, '''a push chain''', in which one sound begins to encroach upon the position of another sound and eventually ‘pushes’ it into a new position, is more common with vowel shifts because vowels can shift in incremental amounts.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 9. Briefly describe the major historical events from the coming of the Romans to Britain until the 11th century. Focus especially on the events that had an important influence on the development of English. ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A. the settlement of England by Germanic tribes in the fifth century  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
B. their Christianization beginning in the late sixth century &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
C. and the invasion and colonization of England by Scandinavians in the eighth to the tenth centuries &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===&amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== 11. What is the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy? Name the major Old English dialects and the original Germanic tribes with which they are associated. ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===&amp;lt;nowiki/&amp;gt;===&lt;br /&gt;
'''The Heptarchy '''(from the Greek &amp;quot;seven&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;to rule&amp;quot;) is a collective name applied to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east and central England during late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, conventionally identified as seven: ''East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex and Wessex''. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually unified into the Kingdom of England. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''The four major dialects''' recognized correspond more or less to the areas settled by the different Germanic tribes: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1. Kentish, spoken in Kent and part of Hampshire; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. West Saxon, spoken in the rest of the area south of the Thames (except for Celtic-speaking Cornwall);&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. Mercian, spoken in the area between the Thames and Humber rivers (except for Celtic-speaking Wales)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. Northumbrian, spoken in the area north of the Humber River (except Celticspeaking Scotland). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''Mercian and Northumbrian are sometimes grouped together as Anglian, since they bear many similarities. Mercian and Northumbrian are sometimes grouped together as Anglian, since they bear many similarities and are found in areas of strong Norse influence. ''&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Ester.Fendrychova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38617</id>
		<title>1. Introduction: Welcome to HEL</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=1._Introduction:_Welcome_to_HEL&amp;diff=38617"/>
		<updated>2016-10-22T18:20:12Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Ester.Fendrychova: Přidala jsem odpověď ke druhé otázce.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;1. Important concepts and terms to explain: synchrony and diachrony; continuity, change and variation (divided usage); English historical linguistics, general linguistics, philology; comparison as the principal method; chronology: Old English (c. 700–1100), Middle English (1100– 1500), Early Modern English (1500–1700), Late Modern English (1700–1900), Present-Day English (PDE; 1900– ); biblical translation: Wycliffite; Authorised Version.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''SYNCHRONY AND DIACHRONY '''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Diachrony''': is the change in the meaning of words over time. is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary meaning of words. A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Synchrony: '''A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. That is how languages compare to each other at any given point in time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CONTINUITY, CHANGE AND VARIATION (DIVIDED USAGE) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Continuity:''' Language exhibits so much complexity that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form; therefore it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our primate ancestors.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Change''': is variation over time in a language's phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features. It is studied by historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Variation:''' Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same thing. Speakers may vary pronunciation (accent), word choice (lexicon), or morphology and syntax (sometimes called &amp;quot;grammar&amp;quot;). But while the diversity of variation is great, there seem to be boundaries on variation – speakers do not generally make drastic alterations in sentence word order or use novel sounds that are completely foreign to the language being spoken. It is studied by sociolinguists.  variation in present‐day system of language: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	one “function“ rendered by two or several „forms“  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	the sense of a starting change  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	or a change as yet uncompleted o  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
examples of variation:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
o	grammar: shone vs. shined &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	grammar / pronunciation / spelling:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	loaf/loaves  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	reef/reefs (but cf. reeve) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	divided usage: hoof/hoofs, hooves, scarf/scarfs, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	(cf. Tolkien on elf/elves vs. elf/elfs)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''ENGLISH HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS, GENERAL LINGUISTICS, PHILOLOGY'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''English Historical Linguistics:''' English historical linguistics is a subfield of linguistics which has developed theories and methods for exploring the history of the English language. It aims to study the long diachrony of English. Its aim is to learn about almost 1,300 years of recorded history of English to understand the present form and function of the language.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''General Linguistics:''' A study of the phenomena, historical changes, and functions of language without restriction to a particular language or to a particular aspect (as phonetics, grammar, stylistics) of language. Its aim is to learn, from the evidence of the one language, about general rules of language change and variation.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Philology:''' Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary criticism, history, and linguistics. It is more commonly defined as the study of literary texts and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. Its aim is to learn, through language, about the changing historical, social and cultural profile of the English‐speaking community.   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''COMPARISON AS THE PRINCIPAL METHOD ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	procedures and sources used for comparison:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
comparison of texts (synchronic and diachronic)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
interdisciplinary comparison (e.g. textual record vs. archeological evidence)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
evidence of closely related languages (e.g. English vs. the Germanic; Latin as a paragon language of culture)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language‐specific evidence vs. universally observed tendencies (e.g. the structure of phonological systems)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
metalinguistic comments (by grammarians, orthographers etc.) on contemporary use of language  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
rhymes, puns etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
variation in Present‐Day English   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''CHRONOLOGY''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''OLD ENGLISH (Anglo‐Saxon; c. 700–1100) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the first records (c. A.D. 700) to the Norman Conquest (A.D. 1066 &amp;gt; A.D.1100)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “full” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
language of a highly inflected morphological structure and thoroughly Germanic wordstock  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
idea of a continuous development in time: Proto‐Germanic – West Germanic – Anglo‐Frisian – Old English – Middle English   &lt;br /&gt;
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'''MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100–1500): ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
from the Norman Conquest to c. A.D.1500  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “reduced” endings (= restricted inflection): cf. OE singan– ME singen, singe –  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
EModE (to) sing  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
expansion of a written standard form and its increasing homogeneity  &lt;br /&gt;
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end of the medieval feudal system and the rise of Renaissance dukes and courtiers  &lt;br /&gt;
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beginning of humanism in England  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
breakaway of Church (1534)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
discovery of America (1492)    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (1500–1800):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
period of “lost” endings  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
centralisation of RP standard: stable relative homogeneity emerging out of the maze of coexisting, regional, social, diachronic a stylistic variants  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
fixation of spelling  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
“New Englishes“ – extraterritorial varieties start taking root   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''LATE MODERN ENGLISH (1700–1900):'''  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
change in vocabulary   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
accumulated many more words as a result of two main historical factors:  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the Industrial Revolution, which necessitated new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the rise of the British Empire, during which time English adopted many foreign words and made them its own  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH (PDE; 1900– ) ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
suffix in adverbs: Today there is a residue of adverbs without the suffix, e.g. far, fast, long, much.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the subjunctive and the modal auxiliaries, tense auxiliaries (future and [plu]perfect), passive, and the progressive (be + -ing)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''BIBLICAL TRANSLATION – JOHN WYCLIFFE ''' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Wycliffe was an advocate for translation of the Bible into the vernacular. He completed a translation directly from the Vulgate into Middle English in the year 1382, now known as Wycliffe's Bible.    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. WHAT THREE THINGS (AT LEAST) IS ANY LANGUAGE ANY TIME AT ONCE? EXPLAIN.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
A language is at least three things at once: a self‐contained system, a reflection of its past history, and a prelude to its own future    &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3. Why is directionality of language change disputable?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
It is quite clear that [u] presumably never changes to [a] in one step, or that [l] never changes to [b], is not surprising, whereas the unidirectionality of the [u] &amp;gt; [y] change and the [l] &amp;gt; [w] change is much harder to explain.  “&amp;quot;One of the most powerful tools in the armamentarium of linguists engaged in the study of diachronic phonology is the often implicit notion that some changes are phonetically more likely than others . Thus if a linguist finds a systematic correspondence between [g] and [dJ] in two related language varieties, it will be reasonable to assume that the stop is the older variant and the affricate the younger one until strong counter evidence is found. The linguist makes such an assumption because experience with many languages has shown that the change of [g] to [dJ] is fairly common and tends to occur under certain welldocumented conditions whereas the reverse change is unusual and problematic.“ Ferguson, 1990 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
4. What is the difference between “linguistics” and “philology”?&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The distinction between Linguistics and Philology, in simplified terms, is often one of medium: Linguistics focusing on spoken language while Philology, on written language. Philology is the branch of linguistic study devoted to comparative and historical research into the development of languages. In a wider sense, the term sometimes also covers the study of literary texts. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
5.What are our limitations in access to languages of the past? &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I would say that the main limitation is the fact that there are no recordings of the spoken language from the past, so we have to rely on the written form which probably noticeably differed from the spoken form. Moreover, the first texts were usually of religious nature, so there aren’t enough sources of the “common language” which people used to speak to one another in their private lives etc.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
6. Provide (preferably your own) examples of variation at various linguistic levels of PDE. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The genitive variation – ‘s or of (that boy’s dog, the dog of that boy). Glottalisation of /t/ (bottle /bɔʔḷ/) on American English X British English. Hung vs hanged.&lt;br /&gt;
grammar: shine-shone, or shine-shined&lt;br /&gt;
grammar/pronunciation/spelling – formation of plurals: loaf-loaves, hoof-hooves but hoofs as well&lt;br /&gt;
lexical: How are you doing? – How do you do? – How are you?&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Ester.Fendrychova</name></author>
		
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