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		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=18284</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=18284"/>
		<updated>2015-03-19T12:26:06Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== '''1) Describe the principal socio-political changes in the late Middle English period and their influence on linguistic development in England. ''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
'''Political and social overview:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	13th century – stability and population growth &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	1315-17 – The Great Famine --&amp;gt; decrease of population &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	1348 and the following years – the first wave of the Plague --&amp;gt; 20 – 50 % population decrease &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	1337 – 1453 – the Hundred Years’ War --&amp;gt; loss of almost all continental lands &lt;br /&gt;
                                    --&amp;gt; resentment towards all French&lt;br /&gt;
                                    --&amp;gt; unjust taxes - Peasant's Revolt (1381)&lt;br /&gt;
                                    --&amp;gt; geographical mobility - contact of varieties&lt;br /&gt;
                                    --&amp;gt; social mobility&lt;br /&gt;
-	1455 – 1485 – the Wars of the Roses  --&amp;gt; weakening of feudal power and strengthening of merchant classes&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-   religious matters - Lollardy - movement led by J. Wycliffe demanding changes in the Church --&amp;gt; challenging Latin&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 2) Comment on the decline of French and Latin and specify what areas were still dominated by either of the two languages at the end of the ME period? ==&lt;br /&gt;
Languages in then England: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a) Latin - language of laws and of the Church&lt;br /&gt;
        - with questioning of the habits of the Church came challanging of Latin&lt;br /&gt;
        - De heretico comburendo - the ban of translations of the Bible into English&lt;br /&gt;
        - familiarization of the mass population with Lollard's Bible represented a threat to the Church&lt;br /&gt;
- in scholarly writing present until EModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b) French - decrease during the Hundred Year's War&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- became a language of 'culture and fashion rather than an economic or political necessity' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c) English - language of rural people and merchants&lt;br /&gt;
         - minor documents - wills, municipal proclamations, merchants' documents, guilds rules&lt;br /&gt;
- later spoken in courts (written still Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
3) CHARACTERIZE THE EMERGENT STANDARD OF THE ME PERIOD AND HOW IT BECAME ESTABLISHED. ==&lt;br /&gt;
- people from various parts moved to London (centre of government, administration, trade)&lt;br /&gt;
- London English began to function as a standard&lt;br /&gt;
     - koinéization (dialects levelling) - spoken&lt;br /&gt;
     - Chancery English - written&lt;br /&gt;
- people from North came to London and got to the upper class - reflected in London (later Standard) English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the Midlands variety best for StE - in the middle, neither radical nor too conservative, Oxbridge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Chancery English - official documents, letters of the men of affairs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the wave theory - prestigious varieties moving to neighbouring areas&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 3)  CHARACTERIZE THE EMERGENT STANDARD OF THE ME PERIOD AND HOW IT BECAME ESTABLISHED. ==&lt;br /&gt;
* for three centuries following the Norman Conquest there no single form of English recognised as a norm (of a language differentiated into a great number of regional dialects) &lt;br /&gt;
* beginning of the 13th century: people from all over England moving to London and bringing their divergent dialects with them (a medieval melting pot of regional, social and individual varieties) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Changes in socio-historical context ====&lt;br /&gt;
* the decline of French and growing centralization of the conduct of national business --&amp;gt; called for the development of a written standard form of English suitable as an administrative language for communication throughout the kingdom (minimal exceptions, maximum application)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Context of the emergent standard ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language contact&lt;br /&gt;
* waning feudal system &lt;br /&gt;
* the emerging middle class &lt;br /&gt;
* increasing social mobility &lt;br /&gt;
* the economic and political opportunity offered by the more and more powerful guilds (social climbing) &lt;br /&gt;
* the necessity that people understand the law moved English into the centre of learned attention &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== East Midlands ====&lt;br /&gt;
* in the 14th century, a major population centre (centre of wool and grain exportation)&lt;br /&gt;
* = most populous and prosperous area &lt;br /&gt;
* geographically and linguistically well suited for the development of the standard &lt;br /&gt;
** in the middle &lt;br /&gt;
** its language not extreme, a land of compromise &lt;br /&gt;
** universities of Oxford and Cambridge (intellectual leadership) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London ====&lt;br /&gt;
* attracted more and more people &lt;br /&gt;
* = centre of government, administration, trade and commerce &lt;br /&gt;
* largest city, concentration of power &lt;br /&gt;
* London English becomes a “national language” --&amp;gt; takes on the force of a standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Two central forces driving standardization ====&lt;br /&gt;
# the spoken language of everyday life – degree of levelling (koineization), variety of Midlands laced with Northern features &lt;br /&gt;
# Chancery English – written, influenced by the language of the Chancery, the government administration (used in official records), a high degree of uniformity  &lt;br /&gt;
==== London English ====&lt;br /&gt;
* prominence of Midlanders and Northerners in the London City government&lt;br /&gt;
* English becomes the language of court &lt;br /&gt;
* widely accepted as a written standard everywhere (x spoken language still considerably varied) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Wave theory ====&lt;br /&gt;
* applicable to the expansion of London English &lt;br /&gt;
* language variety adopted by prominent people --&amp;gt; adopted in neighbouring areas &lt;br /&gt;
* = spreading like waves around a stone thrown into a pond &lt;br /&gt;
* London --&amp;gt; neighbouring areas --&amp;gt; distant areas  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== '''4)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 5) How did borrowing of the late ME period affect the structuring of English vocabulary? ==&lt;br /&gt;
* The structure of vocabulary in Middle English also reflects the cultural and socio-political development and moreover had influence on the shift in meaning of these words &lt;br /&gt;
* Borrowings from Dutch – trade -&lt;br /&gt;
* French and Latin – loan words &lt;br /&gt;
** exist alongside the Germanic equivalents - often causing changes in meanings  &lt;br /&gt;
** doublets – in literature and elsewhere appear both – style and educating of readers (making them understand) &lt;br /&gt;
** effect – a) disappearance of some Germanic words b) shifts in meaning – usually stylistic - division of words origin regarding the register (the concept, especially English X Latin, still present) &lt;br /&gt;
** English origin – everyday language of lower classes; French – sometimes slight differences, sometimes difficult and had to be learned; Latin – most bookish, advanced words &lt;br /&gt;
** in Early Modern English there was a great influence of Rennaisance – more Latin &lt;br /&gt;
** loan words - presence of Romance origin words had the effect on morphology etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 6) Discuss the influence of printing on the development of English. ==&lt;br /&gt;
* The role of printing - important development influencing the evolution of Standard English &lt;br /&gt;
* however not seen as an improvement by all – fear of the access of masses to information – inability to control the interpretation – similar to the fear of Wycliffe’s Bible &lt;br /&gt;
* William Caxton – first printer in England (1473) – only 25 years after Gutenberg’s invention&lt;br /&gt;
* Printing came to England right at the time of Standardization of English (written Chancery English)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17873</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17873"/>
		<updated>2015-02-24T12:29:44Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''Middle English between 1350 and 1500'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) Political and social overview:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	13th century – stability and population growth&lt;br /&gt;
-	1315-17 – The Great Famine --&amp;gt; decrease of population&lt;br /&gt;
-	1348 and the following years – the first wave of the Plague --&amp;gt; 20 – 50 % population decrease&lt;br /&gt;
-	1337 – 1453 – the Hundred Years’ War --&amp;gt; loss of almost all continental lands &lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; resentment towards all French&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; unjust taxes - Peasant's Revolt (1381)&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; geographical mobility - contact of varieties&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; social mobility&lt;br /&gt;
-	1455 – 1485 – the Wars of the Roses  --&amp;gt; weakening of feudal power and strengthening of merchant classes&lt;br /&gt;
-       religious matters - Lollardy - movement led by J. Wycliffe demanding changes in the Church --&amp;gt; challanging Latin&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) Languages in then England: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Latin - language of laws and of the Church&lt;br /&gt;
        - with questioning of the habits of the Church came challanging of Latin&lt;br /&gt;
        - De heretico comburendo - the ban of translations of the Bible into English&lt;br /&gt;
        - familiarization of the mass population with Lollard's Bible represented a threat to the Church&lt;br /&gt;
- in scholarly writing present until EModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- French - decrease during the Hundred Year's War&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- became a language of 'culture and fashion rather than an economic or political necessity' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- English - language of rural people and merchants&lt;br /&gt;
          - minor documents - wills, municipal proclamations, merchants' documents, guilds rules&lt;br /&gt;
- later spoken in courts (written still Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3) New standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- people from various parts moved to London (centre of government, administration, trade)&lt;br /&gt;
- London English began to function as a standard&lt;br /&gt;
     - koinéization (dialects levelling) - spoken&lt;br /&gt;
     - Chancery English - written&lt;br /&gt;
- people from North came to London and got to the upper class - reflected in London (later Standard) English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the Midlands variety best for StE - in the middle, neither radical nor too conservative, Oxbridge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Chancery English - official documents, letters of the men of affairs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the wave theory - prestigious varieties moving to neighbouring areas&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 3)  CHARACTERIZE THE EMERGENT STANDARD OF THE ME PERIOD AND HOW IT BECAME ESTABLISHED. ==&lt;br /&gt;
* for three centuries following the Norman Conquest there no single form of English recognised as a norm (of a language differentiated into a great number of regional dialects) &lt;br /&gt;
* beginning of the 13th century: people from all over England moving to London and bringing their divergent dialects with them (a medieval melting pot of regional, social and individual varieties) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Changes in socio-historical context ====&lt;br /&gt;
* the decline of French and growing centralization of the conduct of national business --&amp;gt; called for the development of a written standard form of English suitable as an administrative language for communication throughout the kingdom (minimal exceptions, maximum application)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Context of the emergent standard ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language contact&lt;br /&gt;
* waning feudal system &lt;br /&gt;
* the emerging middle class &lt;br /&gt;
* increasing social mobility &lt;br /&gt;
* the economic and political opportunity offered by the more and more powerful guilds (social climbing) &lt;br /&gt;
* the necessity that people understand the law moved English into the centre of learned attention &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== East Midlands ====&lt;br /&gt;
* in the 14th century, a major population centre (centre of wool and grain exportation)&lt;br /&gt;
* = most populous and prosperous area &lt;br /&gt;
* geographically and linguistically well suited for the development of the standard &lt;br /&gt;
** in the middle &lt;br /&gt;
** its language not extreme, a land of compromise &lt;br /&gt;
** universities of Oxford and Cambridge (intellectual leadership) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London ====&lt;br /&gt;
* attracted more and more people &lt;br /&gt;
* = centre of government, administration, trade and commerce &lt;br /&gt;
* largest city, concentration of power &lt;br /&gt;
* London English becomes a “national language” --&amp;gt; takes on the force of a standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Two central forces driving standardization ====&lt;br /&gt;
# the spoken language of everyday life – degree of levelling (koineization), variety of Midlands laced with Northern features &lt;br /&gt;
# Chancery English – written, influenced by the language of the Chancery, the government administration (used in official records), a high degree of uniformity  &lt;br /&gt;
* this new standard was, then, an artificial form of English with two primary sources: &lt;br /&gt;
# the non‐localised literary standard of Central Midland counties  &lt;br /&gt;
# the writing of London of the late 14th century: Chaucer, Gower, Hoccleve, the Chancery ‐ more diversified in spelling and usage&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London English ====&lt;br /&gt;
* prominence of Midlanders and Northerners in the London City government&lt;br /&gt;
* English becomes the language of court &lt;br /&gt;
* widely accepted as a written standard everywhere (x spoken language still considerably varied) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Wave theory ====&lt;br /&gt;
* applicable to the expansion of London English &lt;br /&gt;
* language variety adopted by prominent people --&amp;gt; adopted in neighbouring areas &lt;br /&gt;
* = spreading like waves around a stone thrown into a pond &lt;br /&gt;
* London --&amp;gt; neighbouring areas --&amp;gt; distant areas  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== '''4)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17872</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17872"/>
		<updated>2015-02-24T12:29:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''Middle English between 1350 and 1500'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) Political and social overview:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	13th century – stability and population growth&lt;br /&gt;
-	1315-17 – The Great Famine --&amp;gt; decrease of population&lt;br /&gt;
-	1348 and the following years – the first wave of the Plague --&amp;gt; 20 – 50 % population decrease&lt;br /&gt;
-	1337 – 1453 – the Hundred Years’ War --&amp;gt; loss of almost all continental lands &lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; resentment towards all French&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; unjust taxes - Peasant's Revolt (1381)&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; geographical mobility - contact of varieties&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; social mobility&lt;br /&gt;
-	1455 – 1485 – the Wars of the Roses  --&amp;gt; weakening of feudal power and strengthening of merchant classes&lt;br /&gt;
-       religious matters - Lollardy - movement led by J. Wycliffe demanding changes in the Church --&amp;gt; challanging Latin&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) Languages in then England: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Latin - language of laws and of the Church&lt;br /&gt;
        - with questioning of the habits of the Church came challanging of Latin&lt;br /&gt;
        - De heretico comburendo - the ban of translations of the Bible into English&lt;br /&gt;
        - familiarization of the mass population with Lollard's Bible represented a threat to the Church&lt;br /&gt;
- in scholarly writing present until EModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- French - decrease during the Hundred Year's War&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- became a language of 'culture and fashion rather than an economic or political necessity' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- English - language of rural people and merchants&lt;br /&gt;
          - minor documents - wills, municipal proclamations, merchants' documents, guilds rules&lt;br /&gt;
- later spoken in courts (written still Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3) New standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- people from various parts moved to London (centre of government, administration, trade)&lt;br /&gt;
- London English began to function as a standard&lt;br /&gt;
     - koinéization (dialects levelling) - spoken&lt;br /&gt;
     - Chancery English - written&lt;br /&gt;
- people from North came to London and got to the upper class - reflected in London (later Standard) English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the Midlands variety best for StE - in the middle, neither radical nor too conservative, Oxbridge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Chancery English - official documents, letters of the men of affairs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the wave theory - prestigious varieties moving to neighbouring areas&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 3)  CHARACTERIZE THE EMERGENT STANDARD OF THE ME PERIOD AND HOW IT BECAME ESTABLISHED.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt; GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012. &amp;lt;/references&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* for three centuries following the Norman Conquest there no single form of English recognised as a norm (of a language differentiated into a great number of regional dialects) &lt;br /&gt;
* beginning of the 13th century: people from all over England moving to London and bringing their divergent dialects with them (a medieval melting pot of regional, social and individual varieties) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Changes in socio-historical context ====&lt;br /&gt;
* the decline of French and growing centralization of the conduct of national business --&amp;gt; called for the development of a written standard form of English suitable as an administrative language for communication throughout the kingdom (minimal exceptions, maximum application)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Context of the emergent standard ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language contact&lt;br /&gt;
* waning feudal system &lt;br /&gt;
* the emerging middle class &lt;br /&gt;
* increasing social mobility &lt;br /&gt;
* the economic and political opportunity offered by the more and more powerful guilds (social climbing) &lt;br /&gt;
* the necessity that people understand the law moved English into the centre of learned attention &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== East Midlands ====&lt;br /&gt;
* in the 14th century, a major population centre (centre of wool and grain exportation)&lt;br /&gt;
* = most populous and prosperous area &lt;br /&gt;
* geographically and linguistically well suited for the development of the standard &lt;br /&gt;
** in the middle &lt;br /&gt;
** its language not extreme, a land of compromise &lt;br /&gt;
** universities of Oxford and Cambridge (intellectual leadership) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London ====&lt;br /&gt;
* attracted more and more people &lt;br /&gt;
* = centre of government, administration, trade and commerce &lt;br /&gt;
* largest city, concentration of power &lt;br /&gt;
* London English becomes a “national language” --&amp;gt; takes on the force of a standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Two central forces driving standardization ====&lt;br /&gt;
# the spoken language of everyday life – degree of levelling (koineization), variety of Midlands laced with Northern features &lt;br /&gt;
# Chancery English – written, influenced by the language of the Chancery, the government administration (used in official records), a high degree of uniformity  &lt;br /&gt;
* this new standard was, then, an artificial form of English with two primary sources: &lt;br /&gt;
# the non‐localised literary standard of Central Midland counties  &lt;br /&gt;
# the writing of London of the late 14th century: Chaucer, Gower, Hoccleve, the Chancery ‐ more diversified in spelling and usage&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London English ====&lt;br /&gt;
* prominence of Midlanders and Northerners in the London City government&lt;br /&gt;
* English becomes the language of court &lt;br /&gt;
* widely accepted as a written standard everywhere (x spoken language still considerably varied) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Wave theory ====&lt;br /&gt;
* applicable to the expansion of London English &lt;br /&gt;
* language variety adopted by prominent people --&amp;gt; adopted in neighbouring areas &lt;br /&gt;
* = spreading like waves around a stone thrown into a pond &lt;br /&gt;
* London --&amp;gt; neighbouring areas --&amp;gt; distant areas  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== '''4)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17871</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17871"/>
		<updated>2015-02-24T12:28:56Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''Middle English between 1350 and 1500'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) Political and social overview:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	13th century – stability and population growth&lt;br /&gt;
-	1315-17 – The Great Famine --&amp;gt; decrease of population&lt;br /&gt;
-	1348 and the following years – the first wave of the Plague --&amp;gt; 20 – 50 % population decrease&lt;br /&gt;
-	1337 – 1453 – the Hundred Years’ War --&amp;gt; loss of almost all continental lands &lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; resentment towards all French&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; unjust taxes - Peasant's Revolt (1381)&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; geographical mobility - contact of varieties&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; social mobility&lt;br /&gt;
-	1455 – 1485 – the Wars of the Roses  --&amp;gt; weakening of feudal power and strengthening of merchant classes&lt;br /&gt;
-       religious matters - Lollardy - movement led by J. Wycliffe demanding changes in the Church --&amp;gt; challanging Latin&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) Languages in then England: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Latin - language of laws and of the Church&lt;br /&gt;
        - with questioning of the habits of the Church came challanging of Latin&lt;br /&gt;
        - De heretico comburendo - the ban of translations of the Bible into English&lt;br /&gt;
        - familiarization of the mass population with Lollard's Bible represented a threat to the Church&lt;br /&gt;
- in scholarly writing present until EModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- French - decrease during the Hundred Year's War&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- became a language of 'culture and fashion rather than an economic or political necessity' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- English - language of rural people and merchants&lt;br /&gt;
          - minor documents - wills, municipal proclamations, merchants' documents, guilds rules&lt;br /&gt;
- later spoken in courts (written still Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3) New standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- people from various parts moved to London (centre of government, administration, trade)&lt;br /&gt;
- London English began to function as a standard&lt;br /&gt;
     - koinéization (dialects levelling) - spoken&lt;br /&gt;
     - Chancery English - written&lt;br /&gt;
- people from North came to London and got to the upper class - reflected in London (later Standard) English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the Midlands variety best for StE - in the middle, neither radical nor too conservative, Oxbridge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Chancery English - official documents, letters of the men of affairs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the wave theory - prestigious varieties moving to neighbouring areas&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 3)  CHARACTERIZE THE EMERGENT STANDARD OF THE ME PERIOD AND HOW IT BECAME ESTABLISHED.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;reference&amp;gt; GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012. &amp;lt;/reference&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* for three centuries following the Norman Conquest there no single form of English recognised as a norm (of a language differentiated into a great number of regional dialects) &lt;br /&gt;
* beginning of the 13th century: people from all over England moving to London and bringing their divergent dialects with them (a medieval melting pot of regional, social and individual varieties) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Changes in socio-historical context ====&lt;br /&gt;
* the decline of French and growing centralization of the conduct of national business --&amp;gt; called for the development of a written standard form of English suitable as an administrative language for communication throughout the kingdom (minimal exceptions, maximum application)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Context of the emergent standard ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language contact&lt;br /&gt;
* waning feudal system &lt;br /&gt;
* the emerging middle class &lt;br /&gt;
* increasing social mobility &lt;br /&gt;
* the economic and political opportunity offered by the more and more powerful guilds (social climbing) &lt;br /&gt;
* the necessity that people understand the law moved English into the centre of learned attention &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== East Midlands ====&lt;br /&gt;
* in the 14th century, a major population centre (centre of wool and grain exportation)&lt;br /&gt;
* = most populous and prosperous area &lt;br /&gt;
* geographically and linguistically well suited for the development of the standard &lt;br /&gt;
** in the middle &lt;br /&gt;
** its language not extreme, a land of compromise &lt;br /&gt;
** universities of Oxford and Cambridge (intellectual leadership) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London ====&lt;br /&gt;
* attracted more and more people &lt;br /&gt;
* = centre of government, administration, trade and commerce &lt;br /&gt;
* largest city, concentration of power &lt;br /&gt;
* London English becomes a “national language” --&amp;gt; takes on the force of a standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Two central forces driving standardization ====&lt;br /&gt;
# the spoken language of everyday life – degree of levelling (koineization), variety of Midlands laced with Northern features &lt;br /&gt;
# Chancery English – written, influenced by the language of the Chancery, the government administration (used in official records), a high degree of uniformity  &lt;br /&gt;
* this new standard was, then, an artificial form of English with two primary sources: &lt;br /&gt;
# the non‐localised literary standard of Central Midland counties  &lt;br /&gt;
# the writing of London of the late 14th century: Chaucer, Gower, Hoccleve, the Chancery ‐ more diversified in spelling and usage&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London English ====&lt;br /&gt;
* prominence of Midlanders and Northerners in the London City government&lt;br /&gt;
* English becomes the language of court &lt;br /&gt;
* widely accepted as a written standard everywhere (x spoken language still considerably varied) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Wave theory ====&lt;br /&gt;
* applicable to the expansion of London English &lt;br /&gt;
* language variety adopted by prominent people --&amp;gt; adopted in neighbouring areas &lt;br /&gt;
* = spreading like waves around a stone thrown into a pond &lt;br /&gt;
* London --&amp;gt; neighbouring areas --&amp;gt; distant areas  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== '''4)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17870</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17870"/>
		<updated>2015-02-24T12:26:59Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''Middle English between 1350 and 1500'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) Political and social overview:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	13th century – stability and population growth&lt;br /&gt;
-	1315-17 – The Great Famine --&amp;gt; decrease of population&lt;br /&gt;
-	1348 and the following years – the first wave of the Plague --&amp;gt; 20 – 50 % population decrease&lt;br /&gt;
-	1337 – 1453 – the Hundred Years’ War --&amp;gt; loss of almost all continental lands &lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; resentment towards all French&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; unjust taxes - Peasant's Revolt (1381)&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; geographical mobility - contact of varieties&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; social mobility&lt;br /&gt;
-	1455 – 1485 – the Wars of the Roses  --&amp;gt; weakening of feudal power and strengthening of merchant classes&lt;br /&gt;
-       religious matters - Lollardy - movement led by J. Wycliffe demanding changes in the Church --&amp;gt; challanging Latin&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) Languages in then England: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Latin - language of laws and of the Church&lt;br /&gt;
        - with questioning of the habits of the Church came challanging of Latin&lt;br /&gt;
        - De heretico comburendo - the ban of translations of the Bible into English&lt;br /&gt;
        - familiarization of the mass population with Lollard's Bible represented a threat to the Church&lt;br /&gt;
- in scholarly writing present until EModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- French - decrease during the Hundred Year's War&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- became a language of 'culture and fashion rather than an economic or political necessity' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- English - language of rural people and merchants&lt;br /&gt;
          - minor documents - wills, municipal proclamations, merchants' documents, guilds rules&lt;br /&gt;
- later spoken in courts (written still Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3) New standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- people from various parts moved to London (centre of government, administration, trade)&lt;br /&gt;
- London English began to function as a standard&lt;br /&gt;
     - koinéization (dialects levelling) - spoken&lt;br /&gt;
     - Chancery English - written&lt;br /&gt;
- people from North came to London and got to the upper class - reflected in London (later Standard) English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the Midlands variety best for StE - in the middle, neither radical nor too conservative, Oxbridge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Chancery English - official documents, letters of the men of affairs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the wave theory - prestigious varieties moving to neighbouring areas&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 3)  CHARACTERIZE THE EMERGENT STANDARD OF THE ME PERIOD AND HOW IT BECAME ESTABLISHED.&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* for three centuries following the Norman Conquest there no single form of English recognised as a norm (of a language differentiated into a great number of regional dialects) &lt;br /&gt;
* beginning of the 13th century: people from all over England moving to London and bringing their divergent dialects with them (a medieval melting pot of regional, social and individual varieties) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Changes in socio-historical context ====&lt;br /&gt;
* the decline of French and growing centralization of the conduct of national business --&amp;gt; called for the development of a written standard form of English suitable as an administrative language for communication throughout the kingdom (minimal exceptions, maximum application)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Context of the emergent standard ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language contact&lt;br /&gt;
* waning feudal system &lt;br /&gt;
* the emerging middle class &lt;br /&gt;
* increasing social mobility &lt;br /&gt;
* the economic and political opportunity offered by the more and more powerful guilds (social climbing) &lt;br /&gt;
* the necessity that people understand the law moved English into the centre of learned attention &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== East Midlands ====&lt;br /&gt;
* in the 14th century, a major population centre (centre of wool and grain exportation)&lt;br /&gt;
* = most populous and prosperous area &lt;br /&gt;
* geographically and linguistically well suited for the development of the standard &lt;br /&gt;
** in the middle &lt;br /&gt;
** its language not extreme, a land of compromise &lt;br /&gt;
** universities of Oxford and Cambridge (intellectual leadership) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London ====&lt;br /&gt;
* attracted more and more people &lt;br /&gt;
* = centre of government, administration, trade and commerce &lt;br /&gt;
* largest city, concentration of power &lt;br /&gt;
* London English becomes a “national language” --&amp;gt; takes on the force of a standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Two central forces driving standardization ====&lt;br /&gt;
# the spoken language of everyday life – degree of levelling (koineization), variety of Midlands laced with Northern features &lt;br /&gt;
# Chancery English – written, influenced by the language of the Chancery, the government administration (used in official records), a high degree of uniformity  &lt;br /&gt;
* this new standard was, then, an artificial form of English with two primary sources: &lt;br /&gt;
# the non‐localised literary standard of Central Midland counties  &lt;br /&gt;
# the writing of London of the late 14th century: Chaucer, Gower, Hoccleve, the Chancery ‐ more diversified in spelling and usage&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London English ====&lt;br /&gt;
* prominence of Midlanders and Northerners in the London City government&lt;br /&gt;
* English becomes the language of court &lt;br /&gt;
* widely accepted as a written standard everywhere (x spoken language still considerably varied) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Wave theory ====&lt;br /&gt;
* applicable to the expansion of London English &lt;br /&gt;
* language variety adopted by prominent people --&amp;gt; adopted in neighbouring areas &lt;br /&gt;
* = spreading like waves around a stone thrown into a pond &lt;br /&gt;
* London --&amp;gt; neighbouring areas --&amp;gt; distant areas  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== '''4)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17867</id>
		<title>Middle English: the emergence of Standard English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Middle_English:_the_emergence_of_Standard_English&amp;diff=17867"/>
		<updated>2015-02-24T10:16:55Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''Middle English between 1350 and 1500'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1) Political and social overview:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	13th century – stability and population growth&lt;br /&gt;
-	1315-17 – The Great Famine --&amp;gt; decrease of population&lt;br /&gt;
-	1348 and the following years – the first wave of the Plague --&amp;gt; 20 – 50 % population decrease&lt;br /&gt;
-	1337 – 1453 – the Hundred Years’ War --&amp;gt; loss of almost all continental lands &lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; resentment towards all French&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; unjust taxes - Peasant's Revolt (1381)&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; geographical mobility - contact of varieties&lt;br /&gt;
                                             --&amp;gt; social mobility&lt;br /&gt;
-	1455 – 1485 – the Wars of the Roses  --&amp;gt; weakening of feudal power and strengthening of merchant classes&lt;br /&gt;
-       religious matters - Lollardy - movement led by J. Wycliffe demanding changes in the Church --&amp;gt; challanging Latin&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2) Languages in then England: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Latin - language of laws and of the Church&lt;br /&gt;
        - with questioning of the habits of the Church came challanging of Latin&lt;br /&gt;
        - De heretico comburendo - the ban of translations of the Bible into English&lt;br /&gt;
        - familiarization of the mass population with Lollard's Bible represented a threat to the Church&lt;br /&gt;
- in scholarly writing present until EModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- French - decrease during the Hundred Year's War&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- became a language of 'culture and fashion rather than an economic or political necessity' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- English - language of rural people and merchants&lt;br /&gt;
          - minor documents - wills, municipal proclamations, merchants' documents, guilds rules&lt;br /&gt;
- later spoken in courts (written still Latin)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
3) New standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- people from various parts moved to London (centre of government, administration, trade)&lt;br /&gt;
- London English began to function as a standard&lt;br /&gt;
     - koinéization (dialects levelling) - spoken&lt;br /&gt;
     - Chancery English - written&lt;br /&gt;
- people from North came to London and got to the upper class - reflected in London (later Standard) English&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the Midlands variety best for StE - in the middle, neither radical nor too conservative, Oxbridge&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Chancery English - official documents, letters of the men of affairs&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- the wave theory - prestigious varieties moving to neighbouring areas&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== 3)  CHARACTERIZE THE EMERGENT STANDARD OF THE ME PERIOD AND HOW IT BECAME ESTABLISHED. ==&lt;br /&gt;
* for three centuries following the Norman Conquest there no single form of English recognised as a norm (of a language differentiated into a great number of regional dialects) &lt;br /&gt;
* beginning of the 13th century: people from all over England moving to London and bringing their divergent dialects with them (a medieval melting pot of regional, social and individual varieties) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Changes in socio-historical context ====&lt;br /&gt;
* the decline of French and growing centralization of the conduct of national business --&amp;gt; called for the development of a written standard form of English suitable as an administrative language for communication throughout the kingdom (minimal exceptions, maximum application)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Context of the emergent standard ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language contact&lt;br /&gt;
* waning feudal system &lt;br /&gt;
* the emerging middle class &lt;br /&gt;
* increasing social mobility &lt;br /&gt;
* the economic and political opportunity offered by the more and more powerful guilds (social climbing) &lt;br /&gt;
* the necessity that people understand the law moved English into the centre of learned attention &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== East Midlands ====&lt;br /&gt;
* in the 14th century, a major population centre (centre of wool and grain exportation)&lt;br /&gt;
* = most populous and prosperous area &lt;br /&gt;
* geographically and linguistically well suited for the development of the standard &lt;br /&gt;
** in the middle &lt;br /&gt;
** its language not extreme, a land of compromise &lt;br /&gt;
** universities of Oxford and Cambridge (intellectual leadership) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London ====&lt;br /&gt;
* attracted more and more people &lt;br /&gt;
* = centre of government, administration, trade and commerce &lt;br /&gt;
* largest city, concentration of power &lt;br /&gt;
* London English becomes a “national language” --&amp;gt; takes on the force of a standard&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Two central forces driving standardization ====&lt;br /&gt;
# the spoken language of everyday life – degree of levelling (koineization), variety of Midlands laced with Northern features &lt;br /&gt;
# Chancery English – written, influenced by the language of the Chancery, the government administration (used in official records), a high degree of uniformity  &lt;br /&gt;
* this new standard was, then, an artificial form of English with two primary sources: &lt;br /&gt;
# the non‐localised literary standard of Central Midland counties  &lt;br /&gt;
# the writing of London of the late 14th century: Chaucer, Gower, Hoccleve, the Chancery ‐ more diversified in spelling and usage&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== London English ====&lt;br /&gt;
* prominence of Midlanders and Northerners in the London City government&lt;br /&gt;
* English becomes the language of court &lt;br /&gt;
* widely accepted as a written standard everywhere (x spoken language still considerably varied) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Wave theory ====&lt;br /&gt;
* applicable to the expansion of London English &lt;br /&gt;
* language variety adopted by prominent people --&amp;gt; adopted in neighbouring areas &lt;br /&gt;
* = spreading like waves around a stone thrown into a pond &lt;br /&gt;
* London --&amp;gt; neighbouring areas --&amp;gt; distant areas  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== '''4)  Name the innovations of the late ME period in the pronominal system, in the system expressing verbal categories and in the word order.''' ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Pronominal system ===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''You singular'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* started to by used instead of ''thou ''&lt;br /&gt;
* due to French influence (upper class and bureaucrats) x sg. ''vous ''more consistent&lt;br /&gt;
* sg. you used for pagan deities x thou for Christian God&lt;br /&gt;
* shift towards you = a sign of respect; sg. you used between equals x who uses though indicates his/her superiority → thou became more of an “insult”, you used more and more as a polite form&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''One'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* emergence in 15th century &lt;br /&gt;
* influenced by French on x on appears only as a subject, while earliest forms of ''one ''were non-nominal case → French probably not that important&lt;br /&gt;
* (gradual loss of indefinite ''man ''– similarity to ''man ''“man” and the problems of agreement and anaphoric references → more suitable candidates for indefinite references (you, they, we, people)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Relative pronouns'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ''þat ''replaced by ''what ''(early ME) and by ''which ''(late ME)&lt;br /&gt;
* ''that ''as non-restrictive probably began in ME, but were essential in ModE&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Periphrastic structures'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* ME was the beginning of widespread phrasal/periphrastic structure&lt;br /&gt;
* occurred already in OE, but the auxiliary status was hard to determine&lt;br /&gt;
* two words (auxiliary ''have ''and also ''be ''combined with past participle) took over the function of a single word with and inflectional ending&lt;br /&gt;
* affected the progressive, the modal auxiliaries in place of the subjunctive and periphrastic do&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== ''Word order'' ====&lt;br /&gt;
* most prominent change was gradual move from accusative object before verb to accusative object after the verb (by 1500 98% of accusative objects are after verb)&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6771</id>
		<title>The origins of English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6771"/>
		<updated>2014-10-14T19:55:15Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== The origins of language ==&lt;br /&gt;
* emerged ca. 145,000 years ago &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;The history of English: an introduction&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* capacity for language is uniquely human and given by the brain structure &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* form and structure of the first language is unknown &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin it is possible that the development of language was dictated by the modern human behaviour&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Changes in the pronunciation of Germanic before the invasion of Britain&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''The First Germanic Sound Shift ''= subgroup of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European language adopted some changes in pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
* two parts - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Grimm's Law''' describes the shift in pronunciation of certain consonants&lt;br /&gt;
** /b, d, g/ lost their voicing -&amp;gt; /p, t, k/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''ad ''x English - ''at'', Latin - ''jugum'' x English'' - yoke''&lt;br /&gt;
** /p, t, k/ changed into fricatives /f, θ, h/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''piscus'' x English - ''fish'', Latin - ''cordis ''x English - ''heart''&lt;br /&gt;
** however - /p, t, k/ after /s/ and before voiceless stops remained&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin ''- stella'' x English - ''star; ''Latin - ''noctis'' x English - ''night''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verner's Law '''explains the effect of word stress on pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
** voiceless fricatives /f, s, θ, ʃ/ became voiced if the preceeding syllable was originally unstressed&lt;br /&gt;
** Latin - ''pater ''x English - ''father - ''the stress was originally on the second syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The world of Germanic people&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* warlike and trade orientated &lt;br /&gt;
** during the Bronze age (La Tene culture&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;) stood in trade with the Greeks and also exercised an influence on the Germanic peoples to the north and east &lt;br /&gt;
** During the Iron Age (second half of the first millennium BCE) major changes in trade and social organisation took place, and Roman invasion started on a course of expansion which would go well beyond its Italian basis &lt;br /&gt;
** The Germanic peoples lived principally from animal husbandry, hunting and agriculture &lt;br /&gt;
** '''Germanic-Roman contact''' has been often of a military nature, whether facing them as enemies or joining them as members of the Roman army&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** Gold coins introduced in 125 BCE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The Influence of the Roman World and of Latin ===&lt;br /&gt;
# Raising expectations about lifestyles and new ways of organising society.  &lt;br /&gt;
# Latin influence in the military area led to the adoption of the words such as ''camp, mile, street, road''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
# The trade brought words like ''pound, wine''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
# The Christianisation of Goths brought words like ''bishop, Saturday''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;'' ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== '''Germanic Migrations Why?''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
# Overpopulation &lt;br /&gt;
# Pressure from the outside inwards like Huns &lt;br /&gt;
# Looked for better pastures &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== A family model in the context of language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* consists of a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* reflects the tree model of language origination&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in the course of language change, ancient families of languages emerged and further diverged to make up the languages we can observe at present &lt;br /&gt;
* proto-language (gained as a result of reconstruction) is labelled metaphorically as the mother of a language family (for English Proto-Germanic) and the sublanguages as its daughters/granddaughters (West Germanic --&amp;gt; Low German --&amp;gt; English) &lt;br /&gt;
* plus, the Germanic language family itself belongs to a larger grouping known as the Indo-European language family &lt;br /&gt;
* membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics &lt;br /&gt;
* problem of this model: assumes only divergence and therefore doesn’t take into account borrowing and other processes by which languages grow more similar &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Proto-language ===&lt;br /&gt;
* the latest common ancestor of a language family&lt;br /&gt;
* first language – usually hypothetical or reconstructed, and unattested – from which a number of attested, or documented, known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
* typically, the proto-language is not known directly; it is reconstructed by applying the comparative method to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics, trying to figure out what earlier shared forms the languages might have had&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** e.g. French, Spanish and Italian are known as the Romance languages, all of them having descended from the earlier “parent“ language, Latin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Divergence ===&lt;br /&gt;
* linguistic evolution, as a result of which certain dialects of one language are isolated from the other dialects of this language and form independent languages&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Divergence+in+Linguistics]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in prehistoric times migrations of people often led to the loss of contact and to divergence &lt;br /&gt;
* can be intentional (according to Howard Giles)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors &lt;br /&gt;
** reflects a desire to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive manner &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Internal changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* phenomenon called “linguistic drift” – tendency of a language to change without any external forces&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/chapter-resources.asp]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* no longer pronouncing /h/ in words previously beginning with the clusters /hl-/, /hn-/, /hr-/, and /hw-/ e.g. hring (ring), hw£t (what)  &lt;br /&gt;
** /h/ = strong aspiration and emphatic expression → loss in non-frenetic speech → the combination /hw-/ retained longest – in question words, which are often uttered individually and more emphatically (What! Why! When!)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* increasing use of demonstratives before nouns  &lt;br /&gt;
** became normal and systematic, resulting in an article system  &lt;br /&gt;
** emphasizing (and specifying) the following noun  &lt;br /&gt;
** original deictic sense (the location of something in time and space) became less prominent and the sense of specification was generalized  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Typological change ====&lt;br /&gt;
* fundamental change in language (word order, inflectional morphology, grammatical categories)  &lt;br /&gt;
* in English: &lt;br /&gt;
** use of the definite article = typological difference from Slavic languages  &lt;br /&gt;
** word-order changed from variable to SVO, but other word-orders occurred as well: Adv-VSO, dependent clauses SOV  &lt;br /&gt;
** went from synthetic language with high degree of inflections (endings added to verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs) to analytical language with periphrastic structures  &lt;br /&gt;
** subject pronouns became mandatory  &lt;br /&gt;
** new noun and verb categories &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== External changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* when languages come into contact with one another and influence each other  &lt;br /&gt;
* significant influence (may result in creolisation) or relatively superficial (words from one language find their way into another and are assimilated into it  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Creolisation ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language communities in which mutually unintelligible languages are spoken come into contact with each other → communication by learning the language of the other group → a great deal of lexical borrowing from the superordinate language takes place, but the borrowed vocabulary is used according to the grammar of their native language → '''pidginization '''= new language comes into existence which is no one’s native language  &lt;br /&gt;
* '''creolization '''– pidgin becomes a native language; when children are exposed to pidgin as their primary language  &lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6757</id>
		<title>The origins of English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6757"/>
		<updated>2014-10-14T18:49:15Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== The origins of language ==&lt;br /&gt;
* emerged ca. 145,000 years ago &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;The history of English: an introduction&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* capacity for language is uniquely human and given by the brain structure &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* form and structure of the first language is unknown &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin it is possible that the development of language was dictated by the modern human behaviour&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Changes in the pronunciation of Germanic before the invasion of Britain&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''The First Germanic Sound Shift ''= subgroup of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European language adopted some changes in pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
* two parts - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Grimm's Law''' describes the shift in pronunciation of certain consonants&lt;br /&gt;
** /b, d, g/ lost their voicing -&amp;gt; /p, t, k/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''ad ''x English - ''at'', Latin - ''jugum'' x English'' - yoke''&lt;br /&gt;
** /p, t, k/ changed into fricatives /f, θ, h/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''piscus'' x English - ''fish'', Latin - ''cordis ''x English - ''heart''&lt;br /&gt;
** however - /p, t, k/ after /s/ and before voiceless stops remained&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin ''- stella'' x English - ''star; ''Latin - ''noctis'' x English - ''night''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verner's Law '''explains the effect of word stress on pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
** voiceless fricatives /f, s, θ, ʃ/ became voiced if the preceeding syllable was originally unstressed&lt;br /&gt;
** Latin - ''pater ''x English - ''father - ''the stress was originally on the second syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The world of Germanic people&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* warlike and trade orientated &lt;br /&gt;
** during the Bronze age (La Tene culture&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;) stood in trade with the Greeks and also exercised an influence on the Germanic peoples to the north and east &lt;br /&gt;
** During the Iron Age (second half of the first millennium BCE) major changes in trade and social organisation took place, and Roman invasion started on a course of expansion which would go well beyond its Italian basis &lt;br /&gt;
** The Germanic peoples lived principally from animal husbandry, hunting and agriculture &lt;br /&gt;
** '''Germanic-Roman contact''' has been often of a military nature, whether facing them as enemies or joining them as members of the Roman army&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** Gold coins introduced in 125 BCE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The Influence of the Roman World and of Latin ===&lt;br /&gt;
# Raising expectations about lifestyles and new ways of organising society.  &lt;br /&gt;
# Latin influence in the military area led to the adoption of the words such as ''camp, mile, street, road''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
# The trade brought words like ''pound, wine''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
# The Christianisation of Goths brought words like ''bishop, Saturday''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;'' ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== '''Germanic Migrations Why?''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
# Overpopulation &lt;br /&gt;
# Pressure from the outside inwards like Huns &lt;br /&gt;
# Looked for better pastures &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== A family model in the context of language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* consists of a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* reflects the tree model of language origination&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in the course of language change, ancient families of languages emerged and further diverged to make up the languages we can observe at present &lt;br /&gt;
* proto-language (gained as a result of reconstruction) is labelled metaphorically as the mother of a language family (for English Proto-Germanic) and the sublanguages as its daughters/granddaughters (West Germanic, Low German, English) &lt;br /&gt;
* plus, the Germanic language family itself belongs to a larger grouping known as the Indo-European language family &lt;br /&gt;
* membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics &lt;br /&gt;
* problem of this model: assumes only divergence and therefore doesn’t take into account borrowing and other processes by which languages grow more similar &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Proto-language ===&lt;br /&gt;
* the latest common ancestor of a language family&lt;br /&gt;
* first language – usually hypothetical or reconstructed, and unattested – from which a number of attested, or documented, known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
* typically, the proto-language is not known directly; it is reconstructed by applying the comparative method to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics, trying to figure out what earlier shared forms the languages might have had&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** e.g. French, Spanish and Italian are known as the Romance languages, all of them having descended from the earlier “parent“ language, Latin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Divergence ===&lt;br /&gt;
* linguistic evolution, as a result of which certain dialects of one language are isolated from the other dialects of this language and form independent languages&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Divergence+in+Linguistics]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in prehistoric times migrations of people often led to the loss of contact and to divergence &lt;br /&gt;
* can be intentional (according to Howard Giles)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors &lt;br /&gt;
** reflects a desire to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive manner &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Internal changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* phenomenon called “linguistic drift” – tendency of a language to change without any external forces&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/chapter-resources.asp]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* no longer pronouncing /h/ in words previously beginning with the clusters /hl-/, /hn-/, /hr-/, and /hw-/ e.g. hring (ring), hw£t (what)  &lt;br /&gt;
** /h/ = strong aspiration and emphatic expression → loss in non-frenetic speech → the combination /hw-/ retained longest – in question words, which are often uttered individually and more emphatically (What! Why! When!)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* increasing use of demonstratives before nouns  &lt;br /&gt;
** became normal and systematic, resulting in an article system  &lt;br /&gt;
** emphasizing (and specifying) the following noun  &lt;br /&gt;
** original deictic sense (the location of something in time and space) became less prominent and the sense of specification was generalized  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Typological change ====&lt;br /&gt;
* fundamental change in language (word order, inflectional morphology, grammatical categories)  &lt;br /&gt;
* in English: &lt;br /&gt;
** use of the definite article = typological difference from Slavic languages  &lt;br /&gt;
** word-order changed from variable to SVO, but other word-orders occurred as well: Adv-VSO, dependent clauses SOV  &lt;br /&gt;
** went from synthetic language with high degree of inflections (endings added to verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs) to analytical language with periphrastic structures  &lt;br /&gt;
** subject pronouns became mandatory  &lt;br /&gt;
** new noun and verb categories &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== External changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* when languages come into contact with one another and influence each other  &lt;br /&gt;
* significant influence (may result in creolisation) or relatively superficial (words from one language find their way into another and are assimilated into it  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Creolisation ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language communities in which mutually unintelligible languages are spoken come into contact with each other → communication by learning the language of the other group → a great deal of lexical borrowing from the superordinate language takes place, but the borrowed vocabulary is used according to the grammar of their native language → '''pidginization '''= new language comes into existence which is no one’s native language  &lt;br /&gt;
* '''creolization '''– pidgin becomes a native language; when children are exposed to pidgin as their primary language  &lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6743</id>
		<title>The origins of English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6743"/>
		<updated>2014-10-13T22:06:37Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== The origins of language ==&lt;br /&gt;
* emerged ca. 145,000 years ago &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;The history of English: an introduction&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* capacity for language is uniquely human and given by the brain structure &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* form and structure of the first language is unknown &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin it is possible that the development of language was dictated by the modern human behaviour&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Changes in the pronunciation of Germanic before the invasion of Britain&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''The First Germanic Sound Shift ''= subgroup of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European language adopted some changes in pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
* two parts - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Grimm's Law''' describes the shift in pronunciation of certain consonants&lt;br /&gt;
** /b, d, g/ lost their voicing -&amp;gt; /p, t, k/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''ad ''x English - ''at'', Latin - ''jugum'' x English'' - yoke''&lt;br /&gt;
** /p, t, k/ changed into fricatives /f, θ, h/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''piscus'' x English - ''fish'', Latin - ''cordis ''x English - ''heart''&lt;br /&gt;
** however - /p, t, k/ after /s/ and before voiceless stops remained&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin ''- stella'' x English - ''star; ''Latin - ''noctis'' x English - ''night''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verner's Law '''explains the effect of word stress on pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
** voiceless fricatives /f, s, θ, ʃ/ became voiced if the preceeding syllable was originally unstressed&lt;br /&gt;
** Latin - ''pater ''x English - ''father - ''the stress was originally on the second syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The world of Germanic people&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* warlike and trade orientated &lt;br /&gt;
** during the Bronze age (La Tene culture&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;) stood in trade with the Greeks and also exercised an influence on the Germanic peoples to the north and east &lt;br /&gt;
** During the Iron Age (second half of the first millennium BCE) major changes in trade and social organisation took place, and Roman invasion started on a course of expansion which would go well beyond its Italian basis &lt;br /&gt;
** The Germanic peoples lived principally from animal husbandry, hunting and agriculture &lt;br /&gt;
** '''Germanic-Roman contact''' has been often of a military nature, whether facing them as enemies or joining them as members of the Roman army&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** Gold coins introduced in 125 BCE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The Influence of the Roman World and of Latin ===&lt;br /&gt;
# Raising expectations about lifestyles and new ways of organising society.  &lt;br /&gt;
# Latin influence in the military area led to the adoption of the words such as ''camp, mile, street, road''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
# The trade brought words like ''pound, wine''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
# The Christianisation of Goths brought words like ''bishop, Saturday''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;'' ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== '''Germanic Migrations Why?''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
# Overpopulation &lt;br /&gt;
# Pressure from the outside inwards like Huns &lt;br /&gt;
# Looked for better pastures &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== A family model in the context of language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in the course of language change, ancient families of languages emerged which further diverged to make up the languages we can observe at present &lt;br /&gt;
* the term 'family' reflects the tree model of language origination&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* proto-language (gained as a result of reconstruction) is labelled metaphorically as the mother of a language family (for English Proto-Germanic) and the sublanguages as its daughters/granddaughters (West Germanic, Low German, English) &lt;br /&gt;
* plus, the Germanic language family itself belongs to a larger grouping known as the Indo-European language family (include nine families: Armenian, Albanian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indian, Iranian, Italic) &lt;br /&gt;
* membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics &lt;br /&gt;
* leads from language varieties to dialectal differences and later to completely different  languages &lt;br /&gt;
* problem: assumes only divergence and therefore doesn’t take into account borrowing and other processes by which languages grow more similar &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Proto-language ===&lt;br /&gt;
* the latest common ancestor of a language family&lt;br /&gt;
* first language – usually hypothetical or reconstructed, and unattested – from which a number of attested, or documented, known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
* typically, the proto-language is not known directly; it is by definition a linguistic reconstruction formulated by applying the comparative method to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics, trying to figure  out what earlier shared form the languages might be expected to have had&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* e.g. French, Spanish and Italian are known as the Romance languages, all of them having descended from the earlier “parent“ language, Latin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Divergence ===&lt;br /&gt;
* linguistic evolution, as a result of which certain dialects of one language are isolated from the other dialects of this language and form independent languages&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Divergence+in+Linguistics]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in prehistoric times migrations of people often led to the loss of contact and to divergence &lt;br /&gt;
* can be intentional (according to Howard Giles)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors &lt;br /&gt;
** reflects a desire to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive manner &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Internal changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* phenomenon called “linguistic drift” – tendency of a language to change without any external forces&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/gramley-9780415566407/chapter-resources.asp]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* no longer pronouncing /h/ in words previously beginning with the clusters /hl-/, /hn-/, /hr-/, and /hw-/ e.g. hring (ring), hw£t (what)  &lt;br /&gt;
** /h/ = strong aspiration and emphatic expression → loss in non-frenetic speech → the combination /hw-/ retained longest – in question words, which are often uttered individually and more emphatically (What! Why! When!)  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
* increasing use of demonstratives before nouns  &lt;br /&gt;
** became normal and systematic, resulting in an article system  &lt;br /&gt;
** emphasizing (and specifying) the following noun  &lt;br /&gt;
** original deictic sense (the location of something in time and space) became less prominent and the sense of specification was generalized  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Typological change ====&lt;br /&gt;
* fundamental change in language (word order, inflectional morphology, grammatical categories)  &lt;br /&gt;
* in English: &lt;br /&gt;
** use of the definite article = typological difference from Slavic languages  &lt;br /&gt;
** word-order changed from variable to SVO, but other word-orders occurred as well: Adv-VSO, dependent clauses SOV  &lt;br /&gt;
** went from synthetic language with high degree of inflections (endings added to verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs) to analytical language with periphrastic structures  &lt;br /&gt;
** subject pronouns became mandatory  &lt;br /&gt;
** new noun and verb categories &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== External changes ===&lt;br /&gt;
* when languages come into contact with one another and influence each other  &lt;br /&gt;
* significant influence (may result in creolisation) or relatively superficial (words from one language find their way into another and are assimilated into it  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== Creolisation ====&lt;br /&gt;
* language communities in which mutually unintelligible languages are spoken come into contact with each other → communication by learning the language of the other group → a great deal of lexical borrowing from the superordinate language takes place, but the borrowed vocabulary is used according to the grammar of their native language → '''pidginization '''= new language comes into existence which is no one’s native language  &lt;br /&gt;
* '''creolization '''– pidgin becomes a native language; when children are exposed to pidgin as their primary language  &lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6741</id>
		<title>The origins of English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6741"/>
		<updated>2014-10-13T21:40:00Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: /* A family model in the context of language change[1]﻿ */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== The origins of language ==&lt;br /&gt;
* emerged ca. 145,000 years ago &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;The history of English: an introduction&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* capacity for language is uniquely human and given by the brain structure &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* form and structure of the first language is unknown &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin it is possible that the development of language was dictated by the modern human behaviour&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Changes in the pronunciation of Germanic before the invasion of Britain&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''The First Germanic Sound Shift ''= subgroup of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European language adopted some changes in pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
* two parts - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Grimm's Law''' describes the shift in pronunciation of certain consonants&lt;br /&gt;
** /b, d, g/ lost their voicing -&amp;gt; /p, t, k/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''ad ''x English - ''at'', Latin - ''jugum'' x English'' - yoke''&lt;br /&gt;
** /p, t, k/ changed into fricatives /f, θ, h/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''piscus'' x English - ''fish'', Latin - ''cordis ''x English - ''heart''&lt;br /&gt;
** however - /p, t, k/ after /s/ and before voiceless stops remained&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin ''- stella'' x English - ''star; ''Latin - ''noctis'' x English - ''night''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verner's Law '''explains the effect of word stress on pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
** voiceless fricatives /f, s, θ, ʃ/ became voiced if the preceeding syllable was originally unstressed&lt;br /&gt;
** Latin - ''pater ''x English - ''father - ''the stress was originally on the second syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The world of Germanic people&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* warlike and trade orientated &lt;br /&gt;
** during the Bronze age (La Tene culture&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;) stood in trade with the Greeks and also exercised an influence on the Germanic peoples to the north and east &lt;br /&gt;
** During the Iron Age (second half of the first millennium BCE) major changes in trade and social organisation took place, and Roman invasion started on a course of expansion which would go well beyond its Italian basis &lt;br /&gt;
** The Germanic peoples lived principally from animal husbandry, hunting and agriculture &lt;br /&gt;
** '''Germanic-Roman contact''' has been often of a military nature, whether facing them as enemies or joining them as members of the Roman army&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** Gold coins introduced in 125 BCE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The Influence of the Roman World and of Latin ===&lt;br /&gt;
# Raising expectations about lifestyles and new ways of organising society.  &lt;br /&gt;
# Latin influence in the military area led to the adoption of the words such as ''camp, mile, street, road''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
# The trade brought words like ''pound, wine''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
# The Christianisation of Goths brought words like ''bishop, Saturday''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;'' ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== '''Germanic Migrations Why?''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
# Overpopulation &lt;br /&gt;
# Pressure from the outside inwards like Huns &lt;br /&gt;
# Looked for better pastures &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== A family model in the context of language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in the course of language change, ancient families of languages emerged which further diverged to make up the languages we can observe at present &lt;br /&gt;
* the term 'family' reflects the tree model of language origination&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* proto-language (gained as a result of reconstruction) is labelled metaphorically as the mother of a language family (for English Proto-Germanic) and the sublanguages as its daughters/granddaughters (West Germanic, Low German, English) &lt;br /&gt;
* plus, the Germanic language family itself belongs to a larger grouping known as the Indo-European language family (include nine families: Armenian, Albanian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indian, Iranian, Italic) &lt;br /&gt;
* membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics &lt;br /&gt;
* leads from language varieties to dialectal differences and later to completely different  languages &lt;br /&gt;
* problem: assumes only divergence and therefore doesn’t take into account borrowing and other processes by which languages grow more similar &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Proto-language ===&lt;br /&gt;
* the latest common ancestor of a language family&lt;br /&gt;
* first language – usually hypothetical or reconstructed, and unattested – from which a number of attested, or documented, known languages are believed to have descended by evolution, or slow modification of the proto-language into languages that form a language family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
* typically, the proto-language is not known directly; it is by definition a linguistic reconstruction formulated by applying the comparative method to a group of languages featuring similar characteristics, trying to figure  out what earlier shared form the languages might be expected to have had&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:2&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* e.g. French, Spanish and Italian are known as the Romance languages, all of them having descended from the earlier “parent“ language, Latin &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Divergence ===&lt;br /&gt;
* linguistic evolution, as a result of which certain dialects of one language are isolated from the other dialects of this language and form independent languages&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Divergence+in+Linguistics]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in prehistoric times migrations of people often led to the loss of contact and to divergence &lt;br /&gt;
* can be intentional (according to Howard Giles)&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
** refers to the instances in which individuals accentuate the speech and non-verbal differences between themselves and their interlocutors &lt;br /&gt;
** reflects a desire to emphasize group distinctiveness in a positive manner &lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6740</id>
		<title>The origins of English</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=The_origins_of_English&amp;diff=6740"/>
		<updated>2014-10-13T21:28:53Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Lucie.Jirankova: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;== The origins of language ==&lt;br /&gt;
* emerged ca. 145,000 years ago &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot;&amp;gt;GRAMLEY STEPHAN. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;The history of English: an introduction&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, 414 p.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* capacity for language is uniquely human and given by the brain structure &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* form and structure of the first language is unknown &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin &amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* based on what we know about language change today, it is plausible that the multitude of contemporary languages have indeed developed from one origin it is possible that the development of language was dictated by the modern human behaviour&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== Changes in the pronunciation of Germanic before the invasion of Britain&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* ''The First Germanic Sound Shift ''= subgroup of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European language adopted some changes in pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
* two parts - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Grimm's Law''' describes the shift in pronunciation of certain consonants&lt;br /&gt;
** /b, d, g/ lost their voicing -&amp;gt; /p, t, k/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''ad ''x English - ''at'', Latin - ''jugum'' x English'' - yoke''&lt;br /&gt;
** /p, t, k/ changed into fricatives /f, θ, h/&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin - ''piscus'' x English - ''fish'', Latin - ''cordis ''x English - ''heart''&lt;br /&gt;
** however - /p, t, k/ after /s/ and before voiceless stops remained&lt;br /&gt;
*** Latin ''- stella'' x English - ''star; ''Latin - ''noctis'' x English - ''night''&lt;br /&gt;
* '''Verner's Law '''explains the effect of word stress on pronunciation&lt;br /&gt;
** voiceless fricatives /f, s, θ, ʃ/ became voiced if the preceeding syllable was originally unstressed&lt;br /&gt;
** Latin - ''pater ''x English - ''father - ''the stress was originally on the second syllable&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== The world of Germanic people&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* warlike and trade orientated &lt;br /&gt;
** during the Bronze age (La Tene culture&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;) stood in trade with the Greeks and also exercised an influence on the Germanic peoples to the north and east &lt;br /&gt;
** During the Iron Age (second half of the first millennium BCE) major changes in trade and social organisation took place, and Roman invasion started on a course of expansion which would go well beyond its Italian basis &lt;br /&gt;
** The Germanic peoples lived principally from animal husbandry, hunting and agriculture &lt;br /&gt;
** '''Germanic-Roman contact''' has been often of a military nature, whether facing them as enemies or joining them as members of the Roman army&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
** Gold coins introduced in 125 BCE  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== The Influence of the Roman World and of Latin ===&lt;br /&gt;
# Raising expectations about lifestyles and new ways of organising society.  &lt;br /&gt;
# Latin influence in the military area led to the adoption of the words such as ''camp, mile, street, road''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
# The trade brought words like ''pound, wine''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; &lt;br /&gt;
# The Christianisation of Goths brought words like ''bishop, Saturday''&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;'' ''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==== '''Germanic Migrations Why?''' ====&lt;br /&gt;
# Overpopulation &lt;br /&gt;
# Pressure from the outside inwards like Huns &lt;br /&gt;
# Looked for better pastures &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
== A family model in the context of language change&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:0&amp;quot; /&amp;gt; ==&lt;br /&gt;
* a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family]&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* in the course of language change, ancient families of languages emerged which further diverged to make up the languages we can observe at present &lt;br /&gt;
* the term 'family' reflects the tree model of language origination&amp;lt;ref name=&amp;quot;:1&amp;quot; /&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* proto-language (gained as a result of reconstruction) is labelled metaphorically as the mother of a language family (for English Proto-Germanic) and the sublanguages as its daughters/granddaughters (West Germanic, Low German, English) &lt;br /&gt;
* plus, the Germanic language family itself belongs to a larger grouping known as the Indo-European language family (include nine families: Armenian, Albanian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indian, Iranian, Italic) &lt;br /&gt;
* membership of languages in a language family is established by comparative linguistics &lt;br /&gt;
* leads from language varieties to dialectal differences and later to completely different  languages &lt;br /&gt;
* problem: assumes only divergence and therefore doesn’t take into account borrowing and other processes by which languages grow more similar &lt;br /&gt;
== Links ==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== References ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Lucie.Jirankova</name></author>
		
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