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		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7897</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7897"/>
		<updated>2014-11-10T16:33:12Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Martin Sedláček: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 46-52&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- pillaging and burning of the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland =&amp;gt; farms established =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as the Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defense against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then in whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (''bishop, Saturday etc'') &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ''ransaka'' “ransack”, ''dreng ''“warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration:'' laga'' “law”, ''hūsting'' “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: ''get, want, call'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: ''leg, freckles, skin'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms:'' bull, egg, axletree'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: ''birth, slaughter, die'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: ''sister, husband'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON ''taka'' “take” replaced OE ''niman'', but “nim” = “nimble” (= stealing in PDE) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.Characterize the Scandinavian element of English lexicon on phonological level.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 53-54.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although the words in OE and ON were identical in many cases, the sound changes have led to distinctions: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a.	Proto-Germanic /sk/ remained /sk/ in Norse, but became /ʃ/ in OE. Numerous words in ModE with the consonant cluster /sk/ come ultimately from ON: ''skirt ''(vs. native ''shirt''), ''shrub ''(vs. ''scrub''), ''scatter ''(vs. ''shatter''), but also ''skin'', ''sky'', ''skill''; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b.	/g/ for /j/ as in ''give ''(OE ''giefan ''with in initial /j/) or ''egg ''(OE ''ey'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c.	/k/ for OE /tʃ/ as in ''kid ''(OE ''cild'') or ''kirk ''(OE ''cirice'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d.	Proto-Germanic /ai/ became /ei/ in Norse, but /o:/ in OE in the ModE pairs ''nay-no, hale-whole, raid-road'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e.	Proto-Germanic /au/ remained ON /au/ but became OE /e:a/ as in ''lauss ''(&amp;gt; ModE ''loose'') vs. ''lēas ''(&amp;gt; ModE –less, e.g. ''hopeless''). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Less frequent pronunciation differences: loss of initial w- (cf. ''Ulf ''vs. ''Wulf'') or the so called metathesis (ON ''brenna ''vs. OE ''biernan ''“burn”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the main syntactic changes during this period.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 56&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* Mainly relative pronouns/particles&lt;br /&gt;
** Ϸe (that/who) used in OE for all antecedents regardless of case and number &lt;br /&gt;
** ON contributed to the use of relative particle ''as ''that came from Norse ''som''&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man as came yesterday'' (more common in northern English dialects)&lt;br /&gt;
** Zero relative appears&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man I [zero] saw yesterday'' &lt;br /&gt;
*** Was probably used even before the Viking invasions, but even though it is a rare construction it appears both in English and Danish, which is interesting &lt;br /&gt;
**** The languages also share “preposition stranding” &lt;br /&gt;
***** A construction where the preposition can be moved away from the relative &lt;br /&gt;
***** E.g. ''a construction in which the relative is fronted'' X ''a'' ''construction which the relative is fronted in''  &lt;br /&gt;
* Verb phrase &lt;br /&gt;
** In OE complex verb forms (such as the perfect, the progressive, the will-future, auxiliary do) were not common, but they are in ME &lt;br /&gt;
*** It is debatable how much was their appearance in ME influenced by ON &lt;br /&gt;
*** It might also be caused the disappearance of the West Saxon written standard under the Normans &lt;br /&gt;
*** In either case it is also possible that it was influenced by the vernacular during the absence of a unified language form (whether in Danelaw or Norman England)&lt;br /&gt;
'''References'''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Martin Sedláček</name></author>
		
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7896</id>
		<title>Old English: The Viking invasions and their consequences</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://wikisofia.cz/w/index.php?title=Old_English:_The_Viking_invasions_and_their_consequences&amp;diff=7896"/>
		<updated>2014-11-10T16:29:03Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Martin Sedláček: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;'''1.	Characterize the nature of Viking raids and Viking settlement in England.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 46-52&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking raids (787+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Reasons for the Vikings leaving their home:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- over-population&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- too few natural resources&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- primogeniture system&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Nature of the raids = similar like the Anglo-Saxons'&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- pillaging and burning of the coast + returning home with gold, silver, slaves etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Monasteries sacked and manuscripts destroyed in Lindisfarne, Jarrow and Iona (793-795)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Viking settlement (850+)'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Less raids, more settling - Danish Vikings in large parts of North and East England, Norwegian Vikings in Western Scotland + parts of Ireland =&amp;gt; farms established =&amp;gt; territorial conflict between inhabitants + newcomers, BUT no forced removal of Celts as the Anglo-Saxons have done&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	West Saxon kings undertook defense against the Danes, ex. Æthelwulf (recorded as a descendant of Seth, the son of biblical Adam) in 854 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelwulf’s son Alfred the Great of Wessex (initiator of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'') stopped the advance of Danish Vikings at battle of Edington in 878&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Peace under Treaty of Wedmore:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
1)	Stable boundary set between kingdom of Wessex and Danelaw (Northumbria, East Mercia &amp;amp; East Anglia)   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2)	The defeated Danish king of East Anglia Guthrum became Christian  (= step towards assimilation of Viking conquerors)&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
•	Æthelstan (Alfred’s grandson) helped the West Saxons reconquer territories in Danelaw and then in whole England &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Settlements of Danes and Anglo-Saxons = relative proximity, similar ways of life, bilingualism&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Eventual renewed attacks by the Danes =&amp;gt; establishment of Danish king over all England: Sweyn Forkbeard &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Æthelstan put into exile&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- His son Cnut (= king of Denmark and Norway) ended Danish raids, though not Danish claims to the throne&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
- Official language at court: English, x Danish&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Compare OE borrowings from Latin and ON. '''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Latin borrowings = mainly religious (''bishop, Saturday etc'') &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Borrowings/loan words from ON  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	War + maritime: ''ransaka'' “ransack”, ''dreng ''“warrior”  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Legal + administration:'' laga'' “law”, ''hūsting'' “tribunal” &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Common verbs: ''get, want, call'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Bodily features: ''leg, freckles, skin'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Farm &amp;amp; animal terms:'' bull, egg, axletree'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Life: ''birth, slaughter, die'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Relations: ''sister, husband'' &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	BUT ex. ON ''taka'' “take” replaced OE ''niman'', but “nim” = “nimble” (= stealing in PDE) &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
•	Most loan words adopted in OE do not appear in writing until ME  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
-	Reason: lack of a literary tradition in Danelaw&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''2.Characterize the Scandinavian element of English lexicon on phonological level.'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Although the words in OE and ON were identical in many cases, the sound changes have led to distinctions: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
a.	Proto-Germanic /sk/ remained /sk/ in Norse, but became /ʃ/ in OE. Numerous words in ModE with the consonant cluster /sk/ come ultimately from ON: ''skirt ''(vs. native ''shirt''), ''shrub ''(vs. ''scrub''), ''scatter ''(vs. ''shatter''), but also ''skin'', ''sky'', ''skill''; &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
b.	/g/ for /j/ as in ''give ''(OE ''giefan ''with in initial /j/) or ''egg ''(OE ''ey'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
c.	/k/ for OE /tʃ/ as in ''kid ''(OE ''cild'') or ''kirk ''(OE ''cirice'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
d.	Proto-Germanic /ai/ became /ei/ in Norse, but /o:/ in OE in the ModE pairs ''nay-no, hale-whole, raid-road'');&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
e.	Proto-Germanic /au/ remained ON /au/ but became OE /e:a/ as in ''lauss ''(&amp;gt; ModE ''loose'') vs. ''lēas ''(&amp;gt; ModE –less, e.g. ''hopeless''). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Less frequent pronunciation differences: loss of initial w- (cf. ''Ulf ''vs. ''Wulf'') or the so called metathesis (ON ''brenna ''vs. OE ''biernan ''“burn”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''4. Summarize the main syntactic changes during this period.'''&amp;lt;ref&amp;gt;Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2012, xxv, p. 56&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
* Mainly relative pronouns/particles&lt;br /&gt;
** Ϸe (that/who) used in OE for all antecedents regardless of case and number &lt;br /&gt;
** ON contributed to the use of relative particle ''as ''that came from Norse ''som''&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man as came yesterday'' (more common in northern English dialects)&lt;br /&gt;
** Zero relative appears&lt;br /&gt;
*** As in ''the man I [zero] saw yesterday'' &lt;br /&gt;
*** Was probably used even before the Viking invasions, but even though it is a rare construction it appears both in English and Danish, which is interesting &lt;br /&gt;
**** The languages also share “preposition stranding” &lt;br /&gt;
***** A construction where the preposition can be moved away from the relative &lt;br /&gt;
***** E.g. ''a construction in which the relative is fronted'' X ''a'' ''construction which the relative is fronted in''  &lt;br /&gt;
* Verb phrase &lt;br /&gt;
** In OE complex verb forms (such as the perfect, the progressive, the will-future, auxiliary do) were not common, but they are in ME &lt;br /&gt;
*** It is debatable how much was their appearance in ME influenced by ON &lt;br /&gt;
*** It might also be caused the disappearance of the West Saxon written standard under the Normans &lt;br /&gt;
*** In either case it is also possible that it was influenced by the vernacular during the absence of a unified language form (whether in Danelaw or Norman England)&lt;br /&gt;
'''References'''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;references /&amp;gt;&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Martin Sedláček</name></author>
		
	</entry>
</feed>